Philosophy, its formation, subject, structure and functions. Philosophy, its subject, functions and structure. Philosophy and worldview Subject structure and functions of modern philosophy

Philosophy as a science.

The origin of philosophy is connected with human needs to explain this world.

Philosophy is the first form of theoretical knowledge.

In the 7th century BC. There was ancient, Greek philosophy. People were interested in the question of what nature is, which is why they were called natural philosophers.

The volume of knowledge then was small; philosophy included the subjects of all future sciences. People sought to understand the origin of nature, the world, and raised the question of the fundamental principle of the world.

In the Middle Ages, philosophy was engaged in substantiating the dogmas of religion, which is why philosophy was called the “handmaiden of theology.”

In the 14th-16th-18th centuries, the volume of knowledge increased, a demarcation between sciences began, and various theories emerged. All this arises with the development of industry. Jurisprudence, political economy, etc. appear.

3 possible answers to the question: what should philosophy do:

Religious philosophy point of view:

Philosophy is viewed as a science that cannot solve its problems using scientific methods. Philosophy is not a science at all.

Positivism point of view:

This t.z. arises in the 30s of the 19th century (representative A. Kant). Science does not need philosophy at all; they separate science from philosophy. There is no need for philosophy, because There are separate sciences. The problems that philosophy deals with are imaginary.

Marxist point of view:

This t.z. arises in the 40s of the 19th century. Specific and special sciences have problems that they are not able to solve on their own, i.e. a union of philosophy and special sciences is assumed.

Philosophy – The most general knowledge about the world and man.

The peculiarity of philosophy as a science is the study of the world as a whole.

The subject of modern philosophy has become the universal laws of the structure, functioning, development of the world, everything general principles knowledge and transformation of the world.

Linguistic philosophy deals with the analysis of the language of science.

The subject of philosophy determines the structure of philosophy.

Sections of philosophical knowledge:

Ontology is a philosophical doctrine of being

Epistemology – phil. doctrine of knowledge

Dialectics - the doctrine of development

Social philosophy - the doctrine of society

Philosophy of economics, law, etc.

History of philosophy

Philosophy of history

Logic is the study of the laws of thought

Ethics - the doctrine of morality

Aesthetics - the study of beauty

Philosophy of religion and atheism

Philosophical anthropology

The functions of philosophy are the main directions of application of philosophy, through which its goals, objectives, and purpose are realized.

6 functions of philosophy:

1. Worldview function: Contributes to the formation of a holistic picture of the world, ideas about its structure, a person’s place in it, principles of interaction with the outside world.

2. Cognitive (or epistemological) function of philosophy: One of the fundamental functions of philosophy is the goal of correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality (i.e. the mechanism of knowledge)

3. Methodological function of philosophy: It lies in the fact that philosophy develops the basic methods of understanding the surrounding reality. Method is a way to understand and transform activity.

4. Prognostic (or heuristic) function of philosophy: Based on existing philosophical knowledge about the world and man, achievements of knowledge, to predict development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society.

5. Ideological function of philosophy: Ideology is a system of views on the socio-economic system of society, reflecting and expressing the interests of a certain group (class), designed to change the system or strengthen it.

6. Critical (transformative) function of philosophy: Its role is to question the world around us and existing knowledge, look for new features, qualities, and reveal contradictions. The ultimate goal of this function is to expand the boundaries of knowledge, destroy dogmas, ossify knowledge, modernize it, and increase the reliability of knowledge.

SUBJECT, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

1. Subject of philosophy. Religious, scientific and philosophical pictures of the world.

2. Philosophy as a worldview. The main question of philosophy.

3. Structure and functions of philosophy.

1. Subject of philosophy. Religious, scientific and philosophical pictures of the world.F Philosophy translated from ancient Greek means “love of wisdom.” In ancient times, when separate sciences did not exist, philosophy included all human knowledge about himself and the world around him. She studied everything that existed. As knowledge accumulated, independent sciences emerged from philosophy: mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and social sciences. But philosophy did not split into separate sciences. She still studies everything that exists - nature, society, man - but only at the level of generalizations and the most important conclusions. Special sciences study individual objects of nature and society, and philosophy paints a general picture of the world. Philosophy studies the most general principles and laws by which the world works.

Philosophy occupies a special place in the system of sciences. It is the top of the pyramid of sciences, uniting and generalizing all knowledge about the world: natural sciences, social sciences, humanities. Any fundamental science at the level of its most important conclusions and generalizations turns into philosophy.

At the same time, philosophy is not the sum of the conclusions of particular sciences. She has her own subject of study. Therefore, it develops independently, although it interacts with private sciences. Philosophical ideas, as a rule, are ahead of the development of other sciences, because the overall picture is created before individual details are clarified.

Thus, the object of philosophy is the whole world, everything that exists. Subject of philosophy– these are the most common problems of the development of nature, society and man.

It is customary to distinguish between religious, scientific and philosophical pictures of the world. The religious picture of the world is based on belief in the supernatural. It is dogmatic and changes little over time. The scientific picture of the world is based on experience and evidence. It's constantly changing. The philosophical picture of the world, like the scientific one, is rationally justified and based on experience. But it differs from the scientific picture of the world in that it is more general. According to many, philosophy is not a science, but a special form of worldview, a special form of man’s knowledge of himself and the world around him.

2.Philosophy as a worldview, the main question of philosophy. Worldview is a system of a person’s general ideas about the world as a whole, about nature and society, about himself and his place in this world. The everyday worldview is formed in everyday life experience. The scientific worldview is formed by the entire complex of sciences. But theoretical basis any worldview is a philosophy, because it answers the most common questions. Among them, the main question stands out, on the solution of which the solution of all the others depends.

According to a number of philosophers, the main question of philosophy is the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness. Man knows two main types of reality – material and immaterial (spiritual, ideal). Matter is an objective reality, i.e. everything that really exists independently of the will and consciousness of people. The inner world of human consciousness is subjective reality– thoughts, images, feelings. Unlike material objects, thoughts do not have physical characteristics, do not obey material laws.

Already in ancient times, people posed the question: what comes first – matter or consciousness? In resolving the main issue, all philosophers were divided into materialists and idealists. Materialists consider matter to be primary, and idealists consider consciousness or some other immaterial force that generates matter and controls material processes.

There are two main types of idealism: 1) Objective idealists consider any spiritual principle located outside of man (objective) to be primary. Religion is a type of objective idealism. 2) Subjective idealists consider the consciousness of the person (subject) himself to be the primary reality. An extreme option - solipsism - is a doctrine that recognizes human consciousness as the only reality.

Materialism and idealism together are examples of the principle called “monism” and according to which the basis of being is one principle: material or spiritual. There is also dualism - this is a principle whose supporters recognize two equal bases of existence, or two equivalent types of reality. For example, they recognize the eternal parallel coexistence of material and immaterial reality.

The main question of philosophy also has a second side: is the world knowable? This is also a question about the relationship between matter and consciousness, but not in the sense of what is primary, but in how material reality is reflected in consciousness. Is a person capable of having reliable knowledge about the world? Can we know the world as it is in itself? Is it possible to explain the essence, or do we always only describe phenomena given to us in experience in sensations? Some believe that the world is knowable, that a person is capable of obtaining reliable knowledge. Others believe that the world is unknowable, that a person can never be sure of the truth of his knowledge. Agnosticism is a philosophical doctrine that denies the knowability of the world, recognizing the fundamental impossibility of knowing objective reality through human subjective experience.

Structure and functions of philosophy.

Structure of philosophical knowledge:

1) History of philosophy.

2) Ontology (the study of being) is a section of philosophy that studies the most general principles and characteristics of being.

3) Epistemology (theory of knowledge) – a branch of philosophy that studies general patterns human cognitive activity.

4) Social philosophy is a branch of philosophy that studies society.

5) Philosophical anthropology – the study of man.

6) Axiology – the doctrine of values.

7) Ethics is the science of morality.

8) Aesthetics is the science of beauty.

9) Logic is the science of thinking.

Functions of philosophy:

1. Worldview function. Philosophy helps to form a holistic worldview that a person needs in any activity, including everyday activities. Having a philosophical worldview means having the most profound and comprehensive understanding of the world, understanding fundamental laws and relationships. Broad philosophical knowledge helps a person analyze emerging problems and make the right decisions. Philosophical knowledge also helps to form strong life principles, beliefs that give strength to overcome difficulties.

2. Methodological function. Philosophy formulates a system of concepts, principles, laws and methods of cognition that are used in all sciences and in everyday thinking, i.e. are universal methods of cognition.

3. Critical function. Philosophy criticizes misconceptions and prejudices that interfere with the knowledge of truth.

4. Axiological function. Philosophy participates in the formation of a system of values ​​accepted by individuals and society as a whole. Figuratively speaking, philosophy is the “conscience of the era,” in which society’s spiritual search for ideals, guidelines, and values ​​is reflected as in a mirror.

5. Practical function. Philosophy formulates the general goals of the practical transformation of nature and society. The history of philosophy knows many examples when philosophical ideas did not remain only in people’s heads or on the pages of books, but were put into practice, changing the life of society and the course of history. Thus, at one time, the philosophical ideas of the Enlightenment became the ideological preparation of the Great french revolution and the War of Independence in the United States, and subsequently led to the formation of the modern appearance of Europe and America. The philosophy of Marxism became the basis of political theory, which was embodied in the activities communist parties in various countries and radically changed the course of history of the twentieth century.

HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

1. 1 The emergence of philosophy.

2. Philosophy of Ancient India.

3. Philosophy of Ancient China.

4. Philosophy of the pre-Socratic period in Ancient Greece.

5. Ancient Greek philosophy of the classical period: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.

6. Philosophy of the Hellenistic period.

The emergence of philosophy.

There are three historical types of worldview - mythology, religion and philosophy. Before the emergence of philosophy, the religious and mythological worldview dominated the public consciousness. Its features: 1) belief in the supernatural, erasing the boundaries of the possible and impossible, 2) lack of understanding of the differences between nature and man, anthropomorphism, i.e. transfer of human properties to nature, zoomorphism - transfer of properties of the animal world to society; 3) syncretism, i.e. integrity, interweaving of religious, artistic and moral ideas. 4) illogicality, i.e. underdevelopment of logic, the use of sensory images rather than abstract concepts.

Philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, almost simultaneously in the countries of the West and East (India, China, Greece). Prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy: the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, the emergence of commodity-money relations, the decomposition of tribal relations, the emergence of the first states, a critical attitude towards power and traditional religions. The material life of society became more complex and created a need for scientific knowledge. Religious and mythological ideas did not satisfy the increased needs of society. Unlike religion and mythology, philosophy sought a rational explanation for natural phenomena and social practice.

Philosophy of Ancient India.

The oldest religion in India is Brahmanism, whose sacred books were the Vedas and the Upanishads. Brahmanism is based on the belief that the root cause of the whole world is an immaterial force - Brahman. Brahmanism reinforced the division of society into castes. Under the influence of criticism of Brahmanism, six classical religious and philosophical teachings arose: Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa. Three non-classical teachings also arose: Charvaka (Lokayata), Jainism, Buddhism. The philosophical ideas of ancient Indian philosophy were expounded in the books “Mahabharata” and “Bhagavad Gita”.

Basic principles and ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: 1) Most of the teachings were idealistic, i.e. presupposing one or another immaterial origin of the world, recognizing the spiritual basis of being. The Charvaka doctrine was materialistic, according to which the beginning includes four elements: water, air, fire and earth. 2) a dialectical idea appeared about the struggle of opposites - being and non-being, order and chaos (sat and asat), one and multiple. 3) The idea of ​​reincarnation, i.e. transmigration of souls into the bodies of other living beings. Samsara is an endless chain of rebirths. Karma is the sum of a person’s good and evil deeds, on which rebirth depends. 4) The principle of ahimsa - non-harm to living things, environmentalism (respect for nature). 5) altruism, i.e. recognition of the priority of the interests and needs of others (the opposite of selfishness).

The essence of Buddhism: 1) Life is filled with suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is desire; 3) there is a way to get rid of suffering - the middle eightfold path: fulfilling moral standards, asceticism, meditation. This path helps to break the chain of rebirths and achieve nirvana, this is a state of consciousness in which all desires fade away.

Philosophy of Ancient China.

In China, the most influential religious and philosophical teachings were Mohism, Legalism, Taoism (philosopher Lao Tzu), and from the 2nd century. to. AD Confucianism became the state ideology. The most ancient religious and philosophical books are “Shi Jing” (“Canon of Poems”) and “I Ching” (“Book of Changes”). In the “Book of Changes” there was a transition from mythology to philosophy, dialectical ideas appeared: the idea of ​​variability and the idea of ​​the struggle of opposites. It was believed that from the primeval chaos two spirits were born who put the world in order: the male Yang spirit began to rule the sky, and the female Yin spirit began to rule the earth. The book “Canon of Poems” established the cult of heaven. Heaven (tian) is the divine principle that gave birth to humanity and controls it.

In Taoism, the main concept - Tao - is the beginning of the world, incorporeal, infinite, eternally moving.

The main book of Confucius is “Lun Yu”. The core of Confucianism is ethics, distributing responsibilities, requiring strict adherence to rules, adherence to etiquette, rituals, and traditions. Confucianism formed the ideal of the perfect person. A “noble husband” must be kind, honest, courageous, respect elders in age and status, fulfill duties, and observe the golden rule of ethics. Confucianism reinforced social inequality, collectivism and suppressed individuality.

PHILOSOPHY OF NEW TIMES.

1. General characteristics philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries.

2. Philosophy of the French Enlightenment.

3. German classical philosophy. I. Kant.

4. Philosophy of Hegel.

5. Philosophy of L. Feuerbach.

6. Philosophical irrationalism. A. Schopenhauer.

Philosophy of F. Nietzsche (1844-1900).

Nietzsche's philosophy is based on the concept of life as a biological phenomenon and as the highest value. Everything that serves to elevate life and improve it is valuable. Nietzsche agrees with Schopenhauer that the driving force in the development of life is the will, but not the will to live, but the will to power. On this basis - the presence of the will to power - people are not equal, they are divided into strong and weak, into a race of masters and a race of slaves. The first are born to command, and by their nature do not know how to obey. The latter find it more convenient to obey someone else's will. The Master Race has become the highest achievement of evolution, in which life and the will to power reach their maximum strength.

If in society, as in nature, the strongest would win, then humanity would improve. But man emerged from the animal world, and evolution stopped. In society, the weakest wins. A race of slaves, devoid of fortitude, came up with an excuse for their weakness in the form of morality, religion, and law. Morality and religion teach compassion and helping the weak. The law protects the weak from the strong. Slaves win in numbers, forcing the powerful to fulfill their norms. Their morality is revenge on the powerful, legalized envy. In nature, the weak die and progress occurs. In society, the weak are helped and regression occurs. As a result, human development has stalled in an insignificant state.

But Nietzsche hopes that artificial barriers will not stop the evolution of life. Nature once made a leap, the monkey became a man. But man is only a transitional stage. There will be a new leap - and a new biological species will appear - a superman, a “blue-eyed blond beast.” He will cast aside morality and law as unnecessary fetters. He will not obey anyone - neither God, nor the state, nor other people. The superman values ​​beauty and health, strives for the sublime, and improves himself. The superman appreciates life and its joys, but is not afraid of suffering, because... struggle and suffering strengthen the will. The superman respects the strong, but has no compassion for the weak. He will build a new society where beauty and strength will take the place of compassion and pity.

Nietzsche's merit is that he drew attention to the weaknesses and vices of man. His dream of the superman is a belief in man's ability to improve himself. Nietzsche's philosophy combines love and contempt for people. Therefore, some consider it an example of humanism, and some consider it the basis of fascism.

3. Positivism. Supporters of this philosophical school believed that science should only describe the facts of experience. Positivists criticized philosophy (both idealist and materialist) for making assumptions that cannot be verified by experience. They called this philosophy metaphysics. Scientific philosophy should combine the conclusions of particular sciences, but not go beyond their limits.

Stages of development of positivism (varieties):

1) “first” positivism(O. Comte, G. Spencer) (30-40s of the 19th century).

2) empirio-criticism- subjective idealistic doctrine of the late 19th century. (E. Mach, R. Avenarius). They believed that a person cannot know how the outside world works, he only knows his sensations. The world for a person is a set of sensations, elements of the world. Therefore, thinking should be limited to description own feelings person. They called this the principle of economy of thought.

3) Neopositivism (logical positivism(20-30s of the 20th century) , analytical philosophy(since the 50s of the twentieth century). (L. Wittgenstein, B. Russell). This trend originated in Europe, but later became the most popular philosophy in the United States. They reduced philosophy to the analysis of language, scientific terms and logic. They used the principle of verification, according to which the truth of a judgment is verified by experience. They decomposed scientific knowledge into separate atomic propositions that can be verified experimentally. All other scientific judgments must be derived from atomic ones.

4) Critical rationalism (mid-20th century). Representatives of this direction were engaged in the philosophy of science, looking for clear criteria to separate scientific knowledge from non-scientific knowledge. For example, K. Popper introduced the principle of falsification, according to which scientific knowledge is knowledge that can be refuted. Knowledge that in principle cannot be refuted is not scientific (truths of religion, philosophical metaphysics).

5) postpositivism/historical school/ (60-70s of the twentieth century). (T. Kuhn, I. Lakatos, P. Feyerabend, Toulmin) They studied the history of science, how scientific knowledge grew, how scientific revolutions took place.

HISTORY OF RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY

1. Formation and main features of Russian philosophy.

2. Development of revolutionary democratic ideas in Russia.

3. Russian religious philosophy.

1. Formation and main features of Russian philosophy. Russian philosophy is part of world philosophy, but at the same time, it has national characteristics. The formation of Russian philosophy began in the 11th century, after the adoption of Christianity in Ancient Rus'. It was influenced by: 1) pagan beliefs of the Slavic tribes, 2) Christian theology (Byzantine and Western European), 3) ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle). The main problems that interested Russian philosophers: 1) the inner world of man, the problems of good and evil, the meaning of life; 2) social philosophy, the problem of social justice, philosophy of history; 3) features of the Russian national character, the role of Russia in world history (Russian idea).

Until the 18th century Russian philosophy retained a mainly religious character. Most famous representatives religious and philosophical thought of this period: Metropolitan Hilarion, Maxim the Greek, Kirill of Turov, Philotheus. In the 17th-18th centuries. The influence of European philosophy increased, secularization took place, i.e. gradual liberation of philosophy from the influence of religion. M.V. made a great contribution to the development of philosophical education in Russia. Lomonosov. He was a supporter of deism, believed that God created the world and gave it movement, but in the future nature develops independently according to physical laws. He argued that scientific knowledge of nature does not contradict religious faith.

Russian philosophy reached its greatest flourishing in the 19th century. The discussion about the historical fate of Russia and its future came to the fore. In 1836, the “Telescope” magazine published “Philosophical Letter” by P.Ya. Chaadaev, in which he bitterly reflected on the disastrous state of Russia. He harshly criticized the path of development of Russia, pointing out its lag behind the West. Chaadaev’s letter opened a discussion in which two approaches to determining Russia’s place in world history emerged. 1) Westerners argued that all peoples should follow a common path of development, that Russia should borrow experience Western Europe(Kavelin, Granovsky). 2) Slavophiles believed that there are no general laws of development, each nation follows its own path, Russia should develop on the basis of national traditions (Khomyakov, Kireevsky, Aksakov brothers).

2. Development of revolutionary democratic ideas in Russia. The absolute monarchy, serfdom and general backwardness of Russia attracted criticism from the most progressive thinkers. A.N. Radishchev in his work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” showed the cruel and humiliating essence of serfdom, the slave and powerless position of the people. He was a supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment, defended human rights and freedoms, and sought the democratization of society. Radishchev's treatise “On Man, His Mortality and Immortality” is devoted to a comparison of idealistic and materialistic teachings about man. He did not give an unambiguous conclusion, but admitted the admissibility of belief in immortality.

At the end of the 18th century 19th centuries Enlightenment ideas penetrate into Russia. They influenced the worldview of the Decembrists and led to the emergence of plans for the revolutionary reorganization of society. Most of the Decembrists adhered to the philosophy of materialism or deism. Under the influence of the ideas of the Decembrists, the ideology of the revolutionary democrats - Herzen, Ogarev, Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky - later took shape. Herzen advocated building socialism in Russia on the basis of the peasant community, for educating the people, for combining philosophy with natural science.

N.G. Chernyshevsky was a supporter of Feuerbach's anthropological materialism. In the book “Anthropological Principle in Philosophy,” he defended a materialistic view of man, argued that man is part of nature, obeys the laws of nature, and consciousness is a function of the brain. In the field of ethics, he was a supporter of the principle of reasonable egoism, according to which the desire for happiness is inherent in human nature, but in a reasonably structured society it does not contradict the interests of other people. A person's happiness is harmoniously connected with the happiness of society. In the field of aesthetics, Chernyshevsky defended the principle of realism and argued that art should be a reflection of life. His ideas influenced the formation of nihilism, populism and Russian Marxism.

The philosophy of populism continued the development of socialist ideas, but taking into account the special path of development of Russia. Lavrov and Mikhailovsky developed the subjective method in sociology and social philosophy. They exaggerated the role of the individual in history. Bakunin and Kropotkin were supporters of anarchism and considered the state a force that enslaves people.

One of the first supporters of Marxism in Russia was G.V. Plekhanov. But he believed that Russia was not yet ready to build socialism, that its economy must reach a higher level within the framework of capitalism. V.I. Lenin believed that after the revolution Russia would be able to quickly overcome economic backwardness. He creatively developed the philosophy of Marxism. He gave a definition of matter, developed a theory of reflection that explains the essence of consciousness, developed a materialist theory of knowledge, dialectics, and social philosophy. The most complete and consistent presentation of his philosophical views V.I. Lenin gave in his work “Materialism and Empirio-criticism”.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

1. The essence of the philosophical understanding of knowledge.

2. Stages and forms in man’s knowledge of the world.

3. The problem of truth in the theory of knowledge.

Various phenomena can become the object of human cognition. But the process of cognition itself is also a subject of study. It is studied by psychology, logic, and the physiology of higher nervous activity. The philosophical theory of knowledge (epistemology) studies the general laws of human cognitive activity and answers the second side of the main question of philosophy: is the world knowable?

Different philosophical directions explain the essence of knowledge in different ways. From a religious point of view, the purpose of knowledge is the revelation of divine truths. Objective idealists believe that a person must cognize the spiritual force that rules the world - the Absolute Idea (Hegel), the world will (Schopenhauer), etc. Subjective idealists believe that a person can only know his own consciousness (Hume, Kant, Mach, Avenarius). Proponents of agnosticism deny the possibility of human knowledge of the world.

From the point of view of dialectical-materialistic philosophy, the task of man is to understand the material world, its objective laws, as well as self-knowledge.

Proponents of metaphysical thinking view cognition as passive reflection. Dialectical materialism also presents cognition as reflective, but active. Those. in this process, a person purposefully seeks knowledge, transforming the world around him. Cognition is an active, creative, transformative reflection of reality by a person.

A person experiences the world, first of all, with the help of sensations, which are subjective images of the objective world. Sensations are objective in their source, because they reflect the objective world. They are objective in content, because reflect the world as a whole correctly. The subjectivity of sensations lies in the fact that they arise in the consciousness of the subject, and therefore may differ from person to person.

The process of cognition is endless, because matter is inexhaustible. At the same time, there is nothing in the world that is fundamentally unknowable. What remains unexplained today can be known in the future.

The basis of knowledge is socio-historical practice - this is the material and objective activity of people aimed at transforming nature and society. The difference between practice and theory: the main goal and result of theoretical activity is the creation and change of intangible objects (ideas, plans, knowledge). Practical activities are aimed at changing material objects and processes. Types of practice: industrial practice, socio-political, scientific and experimental, everyday practice, etc. In relation to cognition, practice performs four functions:

1) as the basis of knowledge, practice provides initial information

2) how the driving force of practice creates the need for new knowledge

3) as a criterion of truth, practice allows one to distinguish true knowledge from error.

4) as a goal, practice is the final sphere of application of our knowledge.

Theory and practice are two sides of a single cognitive process. Practice plays a decisive role. It is the real needs of practical life that determine the emergence of new theories. But the theory is also active. When applied in practice, it transforms nature and society.

2. Stages and forms in man’s knowledge of the world. Cognition is a complex dialectical process. From describing superficial phenomena, a person moves on to explaining the essence. Accordingly, this process goes through two main stages - sensory and rational cognition.

Sensory cognition is the initial stage of the cognition process, obtaining information through the senses. It occurs in three main forms: in the form of sensations, perceptions and ideas. Sensation is an elementary form of sensory cognition, a reflection in consciousness of individual features of an object. Perception is the reflection in consciousness of a holistic image of an object. Representation is the repeated reproduction of a visual image of an object, without its direct perception.

The meaning of sensory cognition: 1) the senses are the only channel of information coming directly from the outside world; 2) sensory knowledge is the basis for the next stage - rational knowledge. Disadvantages: sensory cognition provides superficial, scattered, contradictory information, reflects phenomena, but does not reveal the essence.

Rational cognition is the acquisition of information using the mind, in the process of logical reasoning. It occurs in three main forms: in the form of concepts, judgments and inferences. A concept is an elementary form of thought that reflects the general and essential characteristics of objects (words and phrases). Judgment is a form of thought in which, with the help of two or more concepts, something about something is affirmed or denied (sentence). Inference is a form of thought in which a new judgment is logically deduced from two or more propositions.

The ability for logical, abstract thinking is a unique evolutionary achievement characteristic only of humans. Rational knowledge allows one to penetrate into the essence of objects and reveal objective laws.

Sensual and rational knowledge are interconnected; they cannot be separated and opposed, as the rationalists and sensualists did. With sensory knowledge, the work of the mind is already present, and rational knowledge is generally impossible without sensory knowledge.

There is a third, not the main stage of cognition. Intuition is the ability to comprehend the truth through its direct perception, without justification by evidence. The condition for intuition is rich experience. But the mechanism of intuitive decision itself is random, irrational, because associated with the unconscious part of the psyche. Intuition plays important role in solving non-standard problems, in scientific discoveries.

3. The problem of truth in the theory of knowledge. The main goal of scientific knowledge is to comprehend the truth. There are different approaches to defining truth. Proponents of pragmatism (American philosophy) consider knowledge that is beneficial to be true. Proponents of conventionalism believe that generally accepted knowledge resulting from agreement is true. The classic definition of truth was given by Aristotle: Truth is knowledge that corresponds to reality.

Truth is always mixed with error, i.e. unintentional acceptance of knowledge that does not correspond to reality as truth. Criteria for truth that make it possible to distinguish it from error: 1) sensory evidence (but feelings can deceive, and facts can be misinterpreted); 2) rational evidence, i.e. reliance on axioms (but axioms are valid only under certain conditions); 3) logical consistency (but logic only confirms the correctness of the form of thought, not the content). These criteria may apply, but they are limited. Real criterion must compare subjective knowledge with objective reality. Such a criterion is practice - testing knowledge in the practical activities of a person.

Truth is divided into relative and absolute. Relative truth is incomplete, limited knowledge about a subject. Absolute truth is comprehensive, exhaustive knowledge. Relative truth is a particle of the absolute.

Truth is characterized by two principles: 1) The principle of objectivity. Any truth is objective in content, because corresponds to the object, but is subjective in form, because is contained in the human mind and can be expressed in various forms (languages). 2) The principle of specificity. Truth depends on specific conditions. What is true in some conditions may be a fallacy in others (laws of classical, relativistic and quantum mechanics).

The dialectical-materialist understanding of truth is opposed to the views of relativism and dogmatism. Proponents of relativism exaggerate the relativity of truth (each person has his own truth in each individual case). Supporters of dogmatism exaggerate the absoluteness of truth (all truth is eternal, unchangeable, fair in any circumstances).

BASIC LAWS OF DIALECTICS

1. Philosophical concept of law. Determinism and indeterminism.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

3. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.

4. The law of negation of negation.

1.Philosophical concept of law. Determinism and indeterminism. Determinism is the doctrine of universal natural relationships and interdependence of objects, processes and phenomena. Supporters of determinism believe that the world is orderly, that everything in it is interconnected, and the relationships are natural. Proponents of the opposite doctrine - indeterminism - believe that the world is chaos, randomness prevails in it and any event can happen. At the core modern science lies the principle of determinism.

Types of connections: causal (relationship of cause and effect), structural (relationship between elements of the system), functional (relationship between the properties of an object, expressed by a function), target (teleonomic) - these are connections in which the development of the system is subordinated to a specific goal.

According to the nature of the action, connections can be necessary and random, essential and insignificant, general and individual, temporary and stable, etc. Among the whole variety of connections, there are those that are laws. Law is a necessary, essential, general, stable connection.

Classification of laws:

1) According to the forms of movement, physical, chemical, biological, and social laws are distinguished. 2) According to the nature of the action, laws are divided into dynamic and probabilistic (statistical). Dynamic laws describe the behavior of individual objects and establish an unambiguous relationship between their states (laws of dynamics). Probabilistic (statistical) laws describe the behavior of large populations, but with respect to individual objects they make only probabilistic predictions. These are all the laws of the microworld (Maxwell’s law on the distribution of molecules by speed, Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation). 3) According to the breadth of action, laws are specific, general and universal. Particular laws operate in a narrow area (Ohm's law). General laws operate either throughout nature (the law of conservation of energy), or in society (social laws), or in thinking (the laws of logic). Universal laws operate in nature, in society and in thinking.

The three basic laws of dialectics are universal. They do not directly govern objects, like private or general laws. They manifest themselves as general tendencies of many private connections and laws. The laws of dialectics fix the similarity in the development of any objects. Together they form a general theory of development. Knowledge of the laws of dialectics allows you to better understand the development of an object in order to manage it.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. The law of unity and struggle of opposites is the core of dialectics, because it reveals the source, the driving force for the development of any system. It answers the question: why does development occur?

Already in ancient times, people noticed that among the diverse phenomena, those that form pairs, are polar in nature, and occupy extreme positions on a certain scale stand out. Ancient philosophers spoke about the opposition of good and evil, light and darkness.

Opposites are sides of an object, process or phenomenon that are simultaneously mutually exclusive and mutually presuppose each other. The properties of an object, the processes occurring in it, the forces acting on it can be opposite. Arithmetic operations are the opposite. In physics, electric charges are opposite, poles magnetic field, action and reaction, order and chaos; in chemistry - analysis and synthesis, association and dissociation; in biology – heredity and variability, health and disease.

Contradiction is the interaction of opposites, their unity and struggle. They repress and suppress each other, but at the same time they cannot exist without each other. Each of them is itself, relative to its opposite.

There are many different opposites in the world, but among them stand out those whose interaction becomes the cause of change and development of the system. In any developing system there are contradictions, i.e. unity and struggle of opposing properties, forces, processes. Contradictions can lead to the destruction of the system. But if contradictions are resolved, then this leads to the development of the system. The absence of contradictions means stability, an equilibrium state of the system. Thus, this law states that the cause, the source of any development is contradictions.

1. Philosophy, its subject, problems, structure and functions. Philosophy as personal knowledge and a rational-critical form of worldview.

One of the most important forms of worldview is philosophy. F. (love of wisdom) germ. OK. 2500 years ago in countries of the other world. It was singled out as a special science by Plato.

F. is a specific type of thinking, a system of worldview, when a person thinks about the universe, about good and evil, the beautiful and the ugly, social justice, truth and lies, about the meaning and purpose of human history. F. is needed to have not a one-sided, but a holistic view of the world; to gain wisdom, to understand life.

The essence of philosophy is reflection on universal problems, in the “World-Man” system.

The main subject of philosophy is the multi-problem “world-man” relationship. The subject of philosophy are the universal properties and connections (relations) of reality - nature, societies, humans, relationships between objects of reality and subjects of the world, material and ideal, being and thinking. The subject of philosophy is the subject as a universal category, opposed to the equally universal category of object. The subject of philosophy exists objectively, independently of philosophy. Subject f. not localized within any particular region. knowledge.

Problems f. noun ob-vno, regardless of it. Problems f.: initial per-d har-tsya cosmocentrism om - striving understand the world as a whole, its origins. and essence. Track. lane: anthropocentrism- problem people, ethics, general. devices; medieval:theocentrism- natural and man as a creation of God; New time: problem knowledge, scientific methods, total. devices

R sections f.: ontology(about being and its essence), Gnoseol.(about knowledge); logics(about thought, its laws and forms), ethics(about morality) aesthetics(about beauty) social.f.(about people island), history f.(emergence, formation, development of f.thoughts)..

Functions : Worldview: Convert a person's views into a valid worldview. Epistemological: the relationship between the object and the subject of cognition, revealed. the connection between the sensory and the rational, explores the problems of truth, etc. Methodological: developer universal, general methodological and mental tools (categories, principles and methods of cognition) for the sciences. Integrating: summarizes the conclusions of specialists. sciences, unites them on the basis of their functions and methods of cognition. Axiological: philosophy gives an assessment, a form. value system. Critical: exposes critical assessment that does not correspond. philosophical system. Cognitive: Phil. organically connects the receipt. knowledge, “drawing” a universal, generalized theory. picture of the world, phil. reveals the sources, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. Cultural and educational: introduces to culture, fosters rational thinking.

Method of philosophy: this is a method of theoretical thinking based on the use of: achievements of science and; practical experience of mankind. Methodology: the doctrine of methods of scientific knowledge or transformation of the world; a set of methods of scientific knowledge.

Philological knowledge has always been based on the determination of the connections between people. and the world, i.e. to clarify the internal goals, causes and ways of understanding and transforming the world by man.

Philosophy acts as information about the world as a whole and man’s relationship to this world and as a set of principles of knowledge, as a universal method of cognitive activity

Problems of philosophical worldview cover the world as a whole, human life as a whole, and a person’s attitude to the world as a whole. There are no broader problems than worldview.

Philosophy helps a person understand the world. Philosophy is an element of spiritual culture. Any philosophy can be considered as a form of worldview.

2. Philosophy and worldview. Historical types of worldview: mythology, religion, philosophy.

Worldview- this is a set of views, assessments, principles that determine the most general vision, understanding of the world, a person’s place in it and, at the same time, life positions, programs of behavior, and actions of people. The subject of the worldview is the individual, the social. group and society as a whole.

The basis of a worldview is knowledge. Knowledge enters into M. in the form of beliefs. U. - intelligence. position, emotion state, confidence in the correctness of one’s ideals, principles, ideas, views. The more solid the stock of knowledge of a people or an individual in an era, the more serious support the corresponding worldview can receive.

The structure of M. also includes ideals. Ideas can be fundamentally justified and illusory, achievable and unrealistic. From the point of view of historicity, types of worldview: 1) Anthropomorphic type.H A person masters the world by transferring his human qualities to natural phenomena and processes. He humanizes nature 2) Anti-anthropomorphic type. Transfer of qualities and natural phenomena to humans.

Attitude– the emotional and psychological side of the worldview at the level of moods and feelings.

Worldview– the emotional-intellectual side of the worldview.

Mythology. Mythology (Greek mifos - legend, legend and logos - word, teaching) is a form of society. consciousness, a way of understanding the world characteristic of early stages social development. Mythology acted as a universal form of social consciousness. Myth - the earliest form of spiritual culture of humanity - united the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, political views, art, and philosophy. It expressed the worldview, worldview, worldview of the era in which it was created. This is a holistic worldview in which various ideas are linked into a single figurative picture of the world, combining reality and fantasy, the natural and the supernatural, knowledge and faith, thought and emotions.

In the search for answers to worldview questions posed by mythology, religion and philosophy have chosen different paths.

Religion. Religion (from Latin - piety, piety, shrine, object of worship) is a form of worldview in which the development of the world is carried out through its doubling into this worldly - “earthly”, perceived by the senses, and otherworldly - “heavenly”, supernatural. The specificity of religion lies in the special nature of its “second” world and its semantic role. The basis of the religious worldview is the belief in the existence of supernatural forces and in their dominant role in the universe and the lives of people.

Faith is a way of existence of religious consciousness, a special mood, an experience that characterizes its internal state. The form of manifestation of faith is a cult - a system of established rituals and dogmas.

Worship of “higher powers” ​​gradually leads to the concept (image) god - supreme being worthy of worship. In mature forms of religions, the idea of ​​God conquers everything demonic and is freed from it.

Philosophy brought to the fore the intellectual aspects of the worldview. She acted as a search for wisdom. "Philosophy" literally means "love of wisdom." The word “philosopher” was first used by Pythagoras (c. 580-500 BC) in relation to people striving for high wisdom and the right way of life.

Philosophical thought is a type of worldview, the foundation for which is the position of reason and intellect. Real observations, logical analysis, generalizations, conclusions, evidence began to supplant fantastic fiction, plots, and images. Philosophical thought has chosen as its guide not dogmatic faith, but free, critical, based on the principles of reason, reflection on the world and people. life

Philosophical thinking embodies the desire to understand the world as holistic and unified at its core. In addition to this, thoughts about the nature of man, his fate, the rational structure and goals of human life.

Thus, the emergence of philosophy meant the emergence of a special spiritual attitude - the search for harmony of knowledge about the world with the life experience of people, with their beliefs, ideals, hopes. Wisdom is not something ready-made that can be discovered, learned, solidified and used. This is a striving, a search that requires effort of the mind and all the spiritual powers of a person, this is a path that every person, even when joining the wisdom of the great, to the wisdom of past centuries and our days, must still go through himself. Philosophy is a system of the most general theoretical views on the world, the place of people in it, and an understanding of the various forms of relationships between people. to the world.

3. The main question of philosophy and its two sides.

The main question of all philosophy is the question of the relationship of thinking to being. What is primary: spirit or nature?

Depending on how philosophers understood this ratio, they constituted two opposite directions: idealism and materialism.

The person is trying to find the answer to the naib. general and deep questions: what is the world around us and what is its place and purpose. what in the world? What underlies all beings: material/spirit? Is he subordinate? peace kl laws? What is the meaning of life, its purpose? Such questions are called worldview questions. Central ideological problem- the relationship of thinking to being, man to the world, consciousness to matter, spirit to nature, mental. and physical, ideal. and mat., which is primary - form. OVF, because through the attitude of a person, his thoughts, consciousness, spirit, psyche. activity, awareness of the place in the world, its purpose, the meaning of existence. Any f. fundamental doctrine on his decision, op. on it as in ref. principle when answering other questions: about essence, relation between material/spirit. about nature true knowledge, about life/death, etc. OVF divides philosophy into materialists, recognizing the primary element matter, existing outside and independent. from consciousness, but consciousness. - secondary, manufactured from matter, and idealists, counting that the spirit, the consciousness of predecessors. matter, creates it. 2 varieties. idealism: volume/sub. O.I. recognizes the basis of all existing volumes, independent. from the f-ka spirit. the beginning is the world spirit, extraperson. intelligence. S.I. counts primary consciousness h-ka, cat. recognized as one. reality, while the action of the phenomenon. the result is the spirit. creativity of the subject. Idealism is close to religion, f. interpretation God, but not excepted. I justified my half-rat. Wed-you, Spanish logical methods of argumentation. F. materialism: basic forms: spontaneous. materialism of the ancients, metaphysics. m. 17-18 centuries, dialectical is closely related to science, op. on its position and conclusions.

Logic and philosophy

Subject, structure and functions of philosophy. Subject of philosophy. The subject is the range of issues that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy, philosophical knowledge consists of four main sections: Ontology - the study of the world...

Subject, structure and functions of philosophy.

Subject of philosophy.

The subject is the range of issues that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy, philosophical knowledge, consists of four main sections:

• Ontology the study of the world as a whole.
• Epistemology knowledge of the world.
• Philosophical anthropology philosophical doctrine of man.
• Sociology consideration and study of social life.
• Ethics the doctrine of morality, and so on...

Within the framework of these four main sections of philosophy, one can distinguish many particular issues studied by it:

• essence of being;
• origin of being;
• matter (substance), its forms;
• consciousness, its origin and nature;
• the relationship between matter and consciousness;
• unconscious;
• man, his essence and existence;
• soul, spiritual world person;
• society;
• society and man;
• nature;
• nature and society;
• the spiritual sphere of society's life;
• material and economic sphere of society;
• social sphere of society;
• socio-economic formations, civilizations;
• perspectives of man, society;
• ecology, problems of survival;
• features of cognition;
• the influence of the cognizing subject on the process of cognition and its results;
• limited and limitless knowledge;
• movement;
• philosophical categories;
• dialectics and its laws;
• other questions.

The structure of philosophy.

Structure of philosophy:

Ontology or theory of being. Man lives in the real world, filled with many things that appear and are recreated. Hence the question: is there some kind of common basis, a foundation that allows them to interact and connect? Ontological problems are problems of the objective existence of reality.

Epistemology or the theory of knowledge (epistemology) studies the relationship of knowledge to reality, the study of its general prerequisites, and the identification of the conditions of its reliability and truth. Phenomenology studies the internal determination of consciousness.

Axiology the doctrine of values ​​(there are universal and group, material and spiritual, eternal and momentary). “Man is an animal who has sacred things.”

Anthropology and cultural theory. The desire to find out the place of man in the world, to establish his special quality that distinguishes him from animals, to discover the generic essence of man. What is the most important thing in a person - language, the ability to laugh?

Methodology and the philosophy of science formulates the principles on which the scientist relies, explores the role for knowledge of some important ideas about the world. In the twentieth century, there are positivist methodology, dialectics, phenomenology, and synergetics.

Social philosophyand philosophy of history.

Social philosophy examines the internal organization of society, its relationship with nature, the relationship between social groups, the role and position of the individual in a specific social organism.

Philosophy of historythe problem of history, its source, beginning, end, subjective and objective in the historical process.

Philosophy of religion. Religion is not limited to cult or ritual. It has an ideological, actually worldview side, around which philosophical debates unfold. There is esotericism (closed from the uninitiated, secret) or occultism.

Ethics the doctrine of morality.

Logics - the doctrine of the forms of human thinking.

Functions of philosophy.

Functions of philosophy main directions of application of philosophy, through which its goals, objectives, and purpose are realized.

It is customary to distinguish the following functions of philosophy:

• ideological;
• methodological;
• thought-theoretical;
• epistemological;
• critical;
• axiological;
• social;
• educational and humanitarian;
• prognostic

Worldview functioncontributes to the formation of the integrity of the picture of the world, ideas about its structure, the place of man in it, the principles of interaction with the outside world.

Methodological functionlies in the fact that philosophy develops the basic methods of understanding the surrounding reality.

Thought-theoretical functionis expressed in the fact that philosophy teaches conceptual thinking and theorizing to extremely generalize the surrounding reality, to create mental and logical schemes, systems of the surrounding world.

Epistemologicalone of the fundamental functions of philosophy aims at correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality (that is, the mechanism of knowledge).

Role critical function- question the surrounding world and existing knowledge, look for their new features, qualities, reveal contradictions.

Axiological functionphilosophy (translated from Greek axios valuable) is to evaluate things, phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values ​​- moral, ethical, social, ideological, etc. The purpose of the axiological function is to be a “sieve” through which to pass everything necessary , valuable and useful and discard what is inhibitory and outdated.

Social functionexplain society, the reasons for its emergence, evolution, current state, its structure, elements, driving forces; reveal contradictions, indicate ways to eliminate or mitigate them, and improve society.

Educational and humanitarian functionphilosophy is to cultivate humanistic values ​​and ideals, instill them in people and society, help strengthen morality, help a person adapt to the world around him and find the meaning of life.

Prognostic functionis to predict development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society, based on existing philosophical knowledge about the surrounding world and man, achievements of knowledge.

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philosophy thinking conscious science

The structure of philosophy as a science

When studying philosophy, there are usually 4 main sections:

• 1. Ontology (from Greek ontos - that which exists and logos - word, speech) is the doctrine of being, the foundations of existence. Its task is to explore the most general and fundamental problems of existence.
• 2. Epistemology (from Greek gnosis - knowledge, cognition and logos - word, speech) or another name epistemology (from Greek episteme - scientific knowledge, science, reliable knowledge, logos - word, speech) is the doctrine of methods and possibilities knowledge of the world. This section examines the mechanisms by which a person understands the world around him.
• 3. Social philosophy is the doctrine of society. Its task is to study social life. Since the life of any individual depends on social conditions, social philosophy studies, first of all, those social structures and mechanisms that determine these conditions. The ultimate goal of social cognition is to improve society, the order in it, and create the most favorable conditions for the self-realization of the individual. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to identify the driving forces of social development, i.e. laws of the functioning of society, the causes of certain social phenomena we observe. The more deeply we understand the relationships and laws existing in society, the more subtly we are able to improve social structures and mechanisms that contribute to the prosperity of society.
• 4. History of philosophy is a section devoted to the history of philosophical teachings, the evolution of philosophical thought, as well as science with the corresponding subject of study. The history of philosophy is important because it shows not only the final result of modern knowledge, but also the thorny path that humanity has overcome in search of truth, and therefore all the difficulties and obstacles that arose along this path. Only by following this path can one understand the full depth of modern truths and avoid repeating typical mistakes of the past.

Each philosophical teaching is valuable because it carries a grain, a piece of truth of greater or lesser significance. As a rule, each subsequent teaching is based on the knowledge and thoughts contained in the previous ones, is their analysis and generalization, and sometimes works on their mistakes. And even if it is erroneous, the teaching makes its valuable contribution on the path to the truth and allows one to realize this error. Therefore, without tracing the development of thought from its very origins, it can be difficult to understand the final result of knowledge, the full value and depth of modern truths. Perhaps this is also why disdain for philosophical truths is growing in modern life. Some of us do not understand their value, do not understand why they are exactly what they are, whereas it would be more convenient for them to understand and perceive differently. Before we are convinced of the truth of this or that knowledge, we sometimes need to hit a lot of “bumps” in life. The history of philosophy is the experience of mistakes, the experience of the ups and downs of thought from the most outstanding thinkers. Their experience is invaluable to us. In the history of philosophy we can trace the evolution of a solution to almost any problem. Philosophy courses taught in universities discuss the most important of them. However, the history of philosophical thought is not limited to the set of topics that textbooks can accommodate. That is why when studying it it is so important to turn to primary sources. A course in the history of philosophy is just brief description real teachings, the full depth and diversity of which is hardly possible to convey in this course.

Philosophical disciplines The names of most branches of philosophy (social philosophy, history of philosophy and epistemology) coincide with the names of the corresponding philosophical disciplines that study them. Therefore, they are not mentioned again here.

Since philosophy studies almost all areas of knowledge, within the framework of philosophy there was a specialization in certain disciplines, limited to the study of these areas:

• 1. Ethics is the philosophical study of morality and ethics.
• 2. Aesthetics - the philosophical doctrine of the essence and forms of beauty in artistic creativity, in nature and in life, about art as a special form of social consciousness.
• 3. Logic is the science of the forms of correct reasoning.
• 4. Axiology - the doctrine of values. Studies issues related to the nature of values, their place in reality and the structure of the value world, i.e., the connection of various values ​​with each other, with social and cultural factors and the structure of personality.
• 5. Praxeology - the doctrine of human activity, the implementation of human values ​​in real life. Praxeology considers various actions from the point of view of their effectiveness.
• 6. Philosophy of religion - the doctrine of the essence of religion, its origin, forms and meaning. It contains attempts at philosophical justifications for the existence of God, as well as discussions about his nature and relationship to the world and man.
• 7. Philosophical anthropology - the doctrine of man, his essence and ways of interacting with the outside world. This teaching seeks to integrate all areas of knowledge about man. First of all, it is based on material from psychology, social biology, sociology and ethology (studies the genetically determined behavior of animals, including humans).
• 8. Philosophy of science - studies the general laws and trends of scientific knowledge. Separately, there are also such disciplines as the philosophy of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, economics, history, law, culture, technology, language, etc.

Main directions of modern world philosophical thought (XX-XXI centuries)

• 1. Neopositivism, analytical philosophy and postpositivism (T. Kuhn, K. Popper, I. Lokatos, S. Toulmin, P. Feyerabend, etc.) - these teachings are the result of the consistent development of positivism. They analyze the problems faced by private (other than philosophy) sciences. These are problems of physics, mathematics, history, political science, ethics, linguistics, as well as problems of the development of scientific knowledge in general.
• 2. Existentialism (K. Jaspers, J.P. Sartre, A. Camus, G. Marcel, N. Berdyaev, etc.) - the philosophy of human existence. Human existence in this teaching is understood as the flow of experiences of an individual, which is always unique and inimitable. Existentialists place emphasis on individual human existence, on the conscious life of the individual, the uniqueness of his life situations, while neglecting the study of the objective universal processes and laws underlying this existence. However, existentialists strive to create a direction of philosophy that would be closest to the current problems of personal life, analyze the most typical life situations. Their main themes are: true freedom, responsibility and creativity.
• 3. Neo-Thomism (E. Gilson, J. Maritain, K. Wojtyla, etc.) - a modern form of religious philosophy that deals with understanding the world and solving universal human problems from the standpoint of Catholicism. His main task is to introduce the highest spiritual values ​​into people's lives.
• 4. Pragmatism (C. Pierce, W. James, D. Dewey, etc.) - associated with a pragmatic position on solving all problems. Considers the appropriateness of certain actions and decisions from the point of view of their practical usefulness or personal benefit. For example, if a person is terminally ill and no benefit is calculated in his further existence, then, from the position of pragmatism, he has the right to euthanasia (assisted death for a seriously and terminally ill person). The criterion of truth, from the point of view of this doctrine, is also utility. At the same time, the denial by representatives of pragmatism of the existence of objective, universally valid truths and the understanding that the goal justifies any means of achieving it casts a shadow on humanistic ideals and moral values. Thus, Dewey writes: “I myself - and no one else can decide for me what I should do, what is right, true, useful and profitable for me.” If everyone in society takes such a position, then ultimately it will turn into only a field of collision of various selfish motives and interests, where there will be no rules and norms, no responsibility.
• 5. Marxism (K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin, E.V. Ilyenkov, V.V. Orlov, etc.) is a materialist philosophy that claims to have scientific status. In his analysis of reality he relies on the material of special sciences. Strives to identify the most general laws and patterns of development of nature, society and thinking. The main method of cognition is dialectical. Dialectics (ancient Greek dialektike - the art of arguing, reasoning) is a way of thinking that seeks to comprehend an object in its integrity and development, in the unity of its opposing properties and tendencies, in diverse connections with other objects and processes. The original meaning of this concept was associated with philosophical dialogue, the ability to conduct a discussion, listen and take into account the opinions of opponents, striving to find the path to the truth. The social philosophy of Marxism is based on the idea of ​​​​creating a communist society built on the ideals of equality, justice, freedom, responsibility and mutual assistance. The ultimate goal of building such a society is to create conditions for the free self-realization of any individual, the fullest disclosure of his potential, where it would be possible to implement the principle: “from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.” However, to realize these ideals, the problem of the individual, unique existence of the individual, the richness of his inner world and needs has not been sufficiently worked out.
• 6. Phenomenology (E. Husserl, M. Merleau-Ponty, etc.) - a teaching that proceeds from the fact that it is necessary to cleanse our thinking of all superficial, artificial logical constructions, but at the same time it neglects the study of the essential world, independent of the human perception and comprehension. Phenomenologists believe that knowledge of the objective world is impossible, therefore they study only the world of meanings (calling them essences), the patterns in the formation of semantic reality. They believe that our idea of ​​the world is not a reflection of the objective world itself, but is an artificial logical construction. To restore the true picture of the world, we must proceed only from our practical attitude towards things and processes. Our understanding of things should develop depending on how we use them, how they manifest themselves in relation to us, and not what their actual essence is that can explain cause-and-effect relationships. For example, for them it does not matter what physical or chemical properties possesses the material from which the thing is created, what bacteria live in it and what microscopic processes occur in it, for them its shape and functions that it performs are of greater importance. From their position, when talking about things, we should put into them only the practical meaning of their possible use. Speaking about natural and social processes, we must mean, first of all, their possible influence on us or the meaning that they carry for us. Thus, the phenomenological approach separates a person from reality, removes the focus on understanding the relationships and laws of the world, discredits the desire for wisdom and objective truth, and loses sight of the value of the experimental knowledge accumulated by humanity.
• 7. Hermeneutics (W. Dilthey, F. Schleiermacher, H.G. Gadamer, etc.) - a philosophical direction that develops methods for correctly understanding texts, avoiding one’s own bias, “pre-understanding” and, trying to penetrate not only the author’s intention, but also into his state during the writing process, into the atmosphere in which this text was created. At the same time, a very broad meaning is put into the concept of text; in their understanding, the entire reality we understand is a special type of text, since we comprehend it through linguistic structures, all our thoughts are expressed in language.
• 8. Psychoanalytic philosophy (Z. Freud, K. Jung, A. Adler, E. Fromm) - explores the patterns of functioning and development of the human psyche, the mechanisms of interaction between the conscious and unconscious. Analyzes various mental phenomena, the most typical human experiences, seeks to identify their nature and causes, and find ways to treat mental disorders.
• 9. Postmodernism (J. Deleuze, F. Guattari, J.-F. Lyotard, J. Derrida, etc.) is a philosophy that, on the one hand, is an expression of a person’s sense of self in the modern era, and on the other, seeks to destroy the classical philosophical tradition striving for knowledge of wisdom and truth. All classical philosophical truths and eternal values ​​in it begin to be revised and discredited. If the modern era, the modern cultural situation (postmodernity) can be called a revolt of feelings against reason, emotions and worldviews against rationality, then the philosophy of postmodernism rebels against any form that can claim to limit individual freedom. However, on the path to such absolute freedom there are objectivity, truth, correctness, regularity, universality, responsibility, any norms, rules and forms of obligation. All this is declared to be a tool of manipulation by the authorities and elites. public opinion. The highest values ​​are freedom, novelty, spontaneity, unpredictability and pleasure. Life, from their point of view, is a kind of game that should not be taken seriously and responsibly. However, the destruction of those norms, ideals and values ​​that were developed through trial and error based on the generalization of the experience of many generations of people is dangerous for the further existence of humanity, since this is the path to society creating unbearable conditions for life (the struggle of selfish motives, the constant use of each other, endless wars, growing environmental crisis, exacerbation of personal problems, etc.).

Indeed, as a result of such a postmodern trend, a simplified understanding of life begins to be valued in society; a person begins to understand the world in the way it is convenient for him to think about it. And therefore people begin to face many problems only because of their short-sightedness, only because they imagine life differently than it really is. Their expectations about life turn out to be deceived, their dreams and goals turn out to be unattainable or achievable, but lead to a different result than they expected, bringing them only disappointment. It is no coincidence that the origins of the modern global economic crisis come from the short-sightedness of state rulers, heads of financial institutions and ordinary people who, without calculating the consequences, accumulated loans and debts that far exceeded reasonable limits.