Speech. Analysis of means of expression.
It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (visual and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Lexical means.
Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as a single word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.
| synonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words close in meaning | soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future |
| antonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words with opposite meanings | they never said you to each other, but always you. |
| phraseological units– stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word | at the end of the world (= “far”), tooth does not touch tooth (= “frozen”) |
| archaisms- outdated words | squad, province, eyes |
| dialectism– vocabulary common in a certain territory | smoke, chatter |
| bookstore, colloquial vocabulary |
daring, companion;
corrosion, management; waste money, outback |
Paths.
In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.
Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:
| metaphor– transferring the meaning of a word by similarity | dead silence |
| personification- likening any object or phenomenon to a living being | dissuadedgolden grove |
| comparison– comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective) | bright as the sun |
| metonymy– replacing a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e. based on real connections) | The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foaming wine in glasses) |
| synecdoche– using the name of a part instead of the whole and vice versa | a lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship) |
| paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition | author of “Woe from Wit” (instead of A.S. Griboyedov) |
| epithet– the use of definitions that give the expression figurativeness and emotionality | Where are you going, proud horse? |
| allegory– expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images | scales – justice, cross – faith, heart – love |
| hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described | at one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed |
| litotes- understatement of the size, strength, beauty of the described | your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble |
| irony- the use of a word or expression in a sense contrary to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule | Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head? |
Figures of speech, sentence structure.
In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.
| epiphora– repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other | I'd like to know. Why do I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor? |
| gradation– construction of homogeneous members of a sentence with increasing meaning or vice versa | I came, I saw, I conquered |
| anaphora– repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other | Irontruth - alive to envy,
Ironpestle, and iron ovary. |
| pun– pun | It was raining and there were two students. |
| rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) – exclamatory, interrogative sentences or sentences with appeals that do not require a response from the addressee | Why are you standing there, swaying, thin rowan tree?
Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear! |
| syntactic parallelism– identical construction of sentences | young people are welcome everywhere,
We honor old people everywhere |
| multi-union– repetition of redundant conjunction | And the sling and the arrow and the crafty dagger
The years are kind to the winner... |
| asyndeton– construction complex sentences or a number of homogeneous members without unions | The booths and women flash past,
Boys, benches, lanterns... |
| ellipsis- omission of an implied word | I'm getting a candle - a candle in the stove |
| inversion– indirect word order | Our people are amazing. |
| antithesis– opposition (often expressed through conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms | Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin |
| oxymoron– a combination of two contradictory concepts | living corpse, ice fire |
| citation– transmission of other people’s thoughts and statements in the text, indicating the author of these words. | As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below a thin epic…” |
| questionably-response form presentation– the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them | And again a metaphor: “Live under minute houses...”. What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction |
| ranks homogeneous members of the sentence– listing homogeneous concepts | A long, serious illness and retirement from sports awaited him. |
| parcellation- a sentence that is divided into intonational and semantic speech units. | I saw the sun. Over your head. |
Remember!
When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.
It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.
Analysis of the task.
(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.
(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying the complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6)But fundamental difference a small ship does not have a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.
(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They have started, multiply, and are swarming with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.
(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land, are just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of so-called technological progress. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.
(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?
(According to V. Soloukhin)
“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image of the “cosmic body” and “astronauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”
List of terms:
- epithet
- litotes
- introductory words and plug-in structures
- irony
- extended metaphor
- parcellation
- question-and-answer form of presentation
- dialectism
- homogeneous members of the sentence
We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.
It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that a plural word should take the place of the omission. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.
Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.
In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute a masculine term, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.
All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.
Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.
Practice.
(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”
(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.
(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed shrilly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a snowstorm. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, snow fell with a rustling sound on the frost-covered windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.
(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and long shadow some giant lay on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.
(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.
(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.
(According to N. Aksenova)
Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.
This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.
Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.
“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe a blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as _____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”
TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.
TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Trails - important element artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.
STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.
HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is found already in the ancient epic different nations, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially
V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.
LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger”, “a hut on chicken legs”, “a little man as big as a finger”.
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.
N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol
METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to
comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.
Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
By you into the darkness of the night, starless
Careless abandoned man!
A. Blok
Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“nerves of steel”), abstraction (“field of activity”), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:
In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...
A. Fet
The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:
With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...
S. Yesenin
In addition to verbal metaphor, widespread in artistic creativity have metaphorical images or expanded metaphors:
Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.
S. Yesenin
Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.
METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).
The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;
The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...
A.S. Pushkin
In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:
You led swords to a bountiful feast;
Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...
A. Pushkin
When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...
A. Pushkin
PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)
PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).
My bells
Steppe flowers!
Why are you looking at me?
Dark blue?
And what are you calling about?
On a merry day in May,
Among the uncut grass
Shaking your head?
A.K. Tolstoy
SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:
And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...
V. Mayakovsky
2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:
Oh, look how you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!
3) Singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:
There a man groans from slavery and chains...
M. Lermontov
And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...
A. Pushkin
4) Replacing a number with a set:
Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.
A. Blok
5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:
We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!
V. Mayakovsky
6) Replacing the specific concept with a generic one:
"Well, sit down, luminary!"
V. Mayakovsky
COMPARISON - a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,
Whirling snow whirlwinds;
The way the beast will howl,
Then he will cry like a child...
A.S. Pushkin
“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:
The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.
M. Lermontov
Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:
And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.
A. Pushkin
She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.
A. Pushkin
A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:
The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.
M. Lermontov
In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:
It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.
A. Pushkin
I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.
A. Pushkin
Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”
M. Sholokhov.
IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Moroz - commander of the patrol
Walks around his possessions.
N.A. Nekrasov
ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.
Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).
GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.
Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,
Spewing wild curses on the way.
And I see: half the people are sitting.
Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?
V. Mayakovsky
IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.
Servant of powerful masters,
With what noble courage
Thunder with your free speech
All those who have their mouths covered.
F.I. Tyutchev
SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.
ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.
Oh spring without end and without edge -
An endless and endless dream!
A. Blok
ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
A storm is coming. It hits the shore
A black boat alien to enchantment...
K. Balmont
ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).
ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You're downtrodden
You are omnipotent
Mother Rus'!…
N.A. Nekrasov
ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blushing like poppies,
I am like death, skinny and pale.
A.S. Pushkin
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...
N. Nekrasov
So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...
S. Yesenin.
Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis
APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.
...When suddenly he came out of the forest
The bear opened its mouth at them...
A.N. Krylov
Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,
Human rumor and horse top!
A.S. Pushkin
ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.
Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Pointless and dim light.
Live for at least another quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.
A. Blok
MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure isnon-union
By slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words and enhances its expressiveness:
And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...
M. Lermontov
And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...
M.Yu. Lermontov
GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:
I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
S. Yesenin
INVERSION(Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.
Legends of deep antiquity
A.S. Pushkin
He passes the doorman with an arrow
Flew up the marble steps
A. Pushkin
OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).
PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.
The waves splash in the blue sea.
The stars shine in the blue sky.
A. S. Pushkin
Your mind is as deep as the sea.
Your spirit is as high as the mountains.
V. Bryusov
Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and those close to them in their artistic features literary works (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).
Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly clouds are eternal wanderers.”
Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.
PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”
N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)
TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.
Peter comes out. His eyes
They shine. His face is terrible.
The movements are fast. He's beautiful
He's like God's thunderstorm.
A. S. Pushkin
RHYME(Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.
ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech, conveying a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker’s excitement or the tension of the action:
We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.
TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.
TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Paths are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.
STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.
HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in ancient epics among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially
V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.
LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is found in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger,” “a hut on chicken legs,” “a little man as big as a fingernail.”
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.
N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol
METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to
comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.
Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
By you into the darkness of the night, starless
Careless abandoned man!
A. Blok
Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“nerves of steel”), abstraction (“field of activity”), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:
In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...
A. Fet
The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:
With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...
S. Yesenin
In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widespread in artistic creativity:
Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.
S. Yesenin
Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.
METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).
The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;
The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...
A.S. Pushkin
In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:
You led swords to a bountiful feast;
Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...
A. Pushkin
When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...
A. Pushkin
PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)
PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).
My bells
Steppe flowers!
Why are you looking at me?
Dark blue?
And what are you calling about?
On a merry day in May,
Among the uncut grass
Shaking your head?
A.K. Tolstoy
SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:
And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...
V. Mayakovsky
2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:
Oh, look how you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!
3) Singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:
There a man groans from slavery and chains...
M. Lermontov
And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...
A. Pushkin
4) Replacing a number with a set:
Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.
A. Blok
5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:
We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!
V. Mayakovsky
6) Replacing the specific concept with a generic one:
"Well, sit down, luminary!"
V. Mayakovsky
COMPARISON - a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,
Whirling snow whirlwinds;
The way the beast will howl,
Then he will cry like a child...
A.S. Pushkin
“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:
The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.
M. Lermontov
Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:
And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.
A. Pushkin
She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.
A. Pushkin
A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:
The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.
M. Lermontov
In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:
It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.
A. Pushkin
I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.
A. Pushkin
Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”
M. Sholokhov.
IMAGE -a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Moroz - commander of the patrol
Walks around his possessions.
N.A. Nekrasov
ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.
Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).
GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.
Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,
Spewing wild curses on the way.
And I see: half the people are sitting.
Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?
V. Mayakovsky
IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.
Servant of powerful masters,
With what noble courage
Thunder with your free speech
All those who have their mouths covered.
F.I. Tyutchev
SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.
ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.
Oh spring without end and without edge -
An endless and endless dream!
A. Blok
ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
A storm is coming. It hits the shore
A black boat alien to enchantment...
K. Balmont
ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).
ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You're downtrodden
You are omnipotent
Mother Rus'!…
N.A. Nekrasov
ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blushing like poppies,
I am like death, skinny and pale.
A.S. Pushkin
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...
N. Nekrasov
So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...
S. Yesenin.
Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis
APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.
...When suddenly he came out of the forest
The bear opened its mouth at them...
A.N. Krylov
Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,
Human rumor and horse top!
A.S. Pushkin
ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.
Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Pointless and dim light.
Live for at least another quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.
A. Blok
MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure isnon-union
By slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words and enhances its expressiveness:
And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...
M. Lermontov
And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...
M.Yu. Lermontov
GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:
I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
S. Yesenin
INVERSION(Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.
Legends of deep antiquity
A.S. Pushkin
He passes the doorman with an arrow
Flew up the marble steps
A. Pushkin
OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).
PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.
The waves splash in the blue sea.
The stars shine in the blue sky.
A. S. Pushkin
Your mind is as deep as the sea.
Your spirit is as high as the mountains.
V. Bryusov
Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A . Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).
Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example, in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly clouds are eternal wanderers.”
Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.
PARCELLATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”
N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)
TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.
Peter comes out. His eyes
They shine. His face is terrible.
The movements are fast. He's beautiful
He's like God's thunderstorm.
A. S. Pushkin
RHYME(Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.
ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech, conveying a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker’s excitement or the tension of the action:
We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.
Our language is holistic and logical correct system. Its smallest unit is sound, its smallest meaningful unit is morpheme. Words, which are considered the basic unit of language, are made up of morphemes. They can be considered from the point of view of their sound, as well as from the point of view of structure, as or as members of a sentence.
Each of the named linguistic units corresponds to a certain linguistic layer, tier. Sound is a unit of phonetics, a morpheme is a unit of morphemics, a word is a unit of vocabulary, parts of speech are a unit of morphology, and sentences are a unit of syntax. Morphology and syntax together make up grammar.
At the level of vocabulary, tropes are distinguished - special figures of speech that give it special expressiveness. Similar means at the syntax level are figures of speech. As we see, everything in the language system is interconnected and interdependent.
Lexical means
Let us dwell on the most striking linguistic means. Let's start with the lexical level of the language, which - recall - is based on words and their lexical meanings.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that are close in their lexical meanings. For example, beautiful – wonderful.
Some words or combinations of words acquire a close meaning only in a certain context, in a certain linguistic environment. This context synonyms.
Consider the sentence: “ It was day August, sultry, painfully boring" . Words August , sultry, painfully boring are not synonyms. However, in this context, when characterizing a summer day, they acquire a similar meaning, acting as contextual synonyms.
Antonyms
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meaning: tall - low, high - low, giant - dwarf.
Like synonyms, antonyms can be contextual, that is, acquire the opposite meaning in a certain context. Words wolf And sheep, for example, are not antonyms out of context. However, in A.N. Ostrovsky’s play “Wolves and Sheep” two types of people are depicted - human “predators” (“wolves”) and their victims (“sheep”). It turns out that in the title of the work the words wolves And sheep, acquiring the opposite meaning, become contextual antonyms.
Dialectisms
Dialecticisms are words that are used only in certain areas. For example, in the southern regions of Russia beet has another name - beetroot. In some areas the wolf is called the biryuk. Växa(squirrel), hut(house), towel(towel) - all these are dialecticisms. In literary works, dialectisms are most often used to create local color.
Neologisms
Neologisms are new words that have recently entered the language: smartphone, browser, multimedia etc.
Outdated words
In linguistics, words that have fallen out of active use are considered obsolete. Obsolete words are divided into two groups - archaisms and historicisms.
Archaisms– these are outdated names of objects that still exist today. Other names, for example, used to have eyes and a mouth. They were named accordingly eyes And mouth.
Historicisms– words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts and phenomena they denote from everyday use. Oprichnina, corvee, boyar, chain mail– objects and phenomena called such words do not exist in modern life, which means that these are historicism words.
Phraseologisms
Phraseologisms are adjacent to lexical linguistic means - stable combinations of words reproduced equally by all native speakers. Like snow fell on your head, play spillikins, neither fish nor fowl, work carelessly, turn up your nose, turn your head... There are so many phraseological units in the Russian language and what aspects of life they don’t characterize!
Trails
Tropes are figures of speech based on playing with the meaning of a word and giving speech special expressiveness. Let's look at the most popular trails.
Metaphor
Metaphor is the transfer of properties from one object to another based on some similarity, the use of a word in a figurative meaning. Metaphor is sometimes called a hidden comparison - and for good reason. Let's look at examples.
Cheeks are burning. The word is used in a figurative meaning are burning. Cheeks seem to be on fire - that’s what hidden comparisons are like.
Sunset bonfire. The word is used in a figurative meaning bonfire. The sunset is compared to a fire, but the comparison is hidden. This is a metaphor.
Expanded metaphor
With the help of metaphor, a detailed image is often created - in this case, not one word, but several, appears in a figurative meaning. Such a metaphor is called expanded.
Here is an example, lines from Vladimir Soloukhin:
“The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe.”
The first metaphor is Earth is a cosmic body- gives birth to the second - we, people - astronauts.
As a result, a whole detailed image is created - human cosmonauts make a long flight around the sun on an Earth ship.
Epithet
Epithet– colorful artistic definition. Of course, epithets are most often adjectives. Moreover, the adjectives are colorful, emotional and evaluative. For example, in the phrase golden ring word golden is not an epithet, it is a common definition characterizing the material from which the ring is made. But in the phrase gold hair, golden soul - gold, golden- epithets.
However, other cases are also possible. Sometimes a noun plays the role of an epithet. For example, frost-voivode. Voivode in this case, application is a type of definition, which means it may well be an epithet.
Often epithets are emotional, colorful adverbs, for example, funny in a phrase walks merrily.
Constant epithets
Constant epithets are found in folklore and oral folk art. Remember: in folk songs, fairy tales, epics, the good fellow is always kind, the maiden is red, the wolf is gray, and the earth is damp. All these are constant epithets.
Comparison
Likening one object or phenomenon to another. Most often it is expressed in comparative phrases with conjunctions as, as if, exactly, as if or comparative clauses. But there are other forms of comparison. For example, the comparative degree of an adjective and adverb or the so-called instrumental comparison. Let's look at examples.
Time flies, like a bird(comparative turnover).
Brother is older than me(comparative turnover).
I younger than brother(comparative degree of the adjective young).
Squirms snake. (creative comparison).
Personification
Endowing inanimate objects or phenomena with the properties and qualities of living things: the sun is laughing, spring has come.
Metonymy
Metonymy is the replacement of one concept with another based on contiguity. What does it mean? Surely you studied in geometry lessons adjacent angles– angles that have one common side. Concepts can also be related - for example, school and students.
Let's look at examples:
School went out on a cleanup day.
Kiss plate ate.
The essence of metonymy in the first example is that instead of the word students the word is used school la. In the second example we use the word plate instead of the name of what is on the plate ( soup, porridge or something similar), that is, we use metonymy.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is similar to metonymy and is considered a type of it. This trope also consists of replacement - but the replacement is necessarily quantitative. More often plural is replaced by a single one and vice versa.
Let's look at examples of synecdoche.
“From here we will threaten Swede… “- thinks Tsar Peter in A.S. Pushkin’s poem “ Bronze Horseman" Of course, this meant more than one Swede, A Swedes- that is, the singular number is used instead of the plural.
And here is a line from Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”: "We all look at Napoleons". It is known that the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte was alone. The poet uses synecdoche - uses the plural instead of the singular.
Hyperbola
Hyperbole is excessive exaggeration. “The sunset glowed with one hundred and forty suns”, writes V. Mayakovsky. And Gogolsky had trousers “as wide as the Black Sea.”
Litotes
Litotes is the opposite trope of hyperbole, an excessive understatement: a boy with a finger, a man with a nail.
Irony
Irony is hidden mockery. At the same time, we put into our words a meaning that is directly opposite to the true one. “Get off, smart one, your head is delusional”, - such a question in Krylov’s fable is addressed to the Donkey, who is considered the embodiment of stupidity.
Periphrase
We have already considered paths based on the replacement of concepts. At metonymy one word is replaced by another according to the contiguity of concepts, when synecdoche The singular number is replaced by the plural or vice versa.
A paraphrase is also a replacement - a word is replaced by several words, a whole descriptive phrase. For example, instead of the word “animals” we say or write “our little brothers.” Instead of the word "lion" - king of beasts.
Syntactic means
Syntactic means are those linguistic means that are associated with a sentence or phrase. Syntactic means are sometimes called grammatical, since syntax, along with morphology, is part of grammar. Let's look at some syntactic means.
Homogeneous members of the sentence
These are members of a sentence that answer the same question, refer to the same word, are one member of a sentence and, in addition, are pronounced with a special intonation of enumeration.
Grew in the garden roses, daisies,bells . — This sentence is complicated by homogeneous subjects.
Introductory words
These are words that more often express an attitude towards what is being communicated, indicate the source of the message or the way the thought is expressed. Let's analyze the examples.
Fortunately, snow fell.
Unfortunately, snow fell.
Maybe, snow fell.
According to a friend, snow fell.
So, snow fell.
The above sentences convey the same information (it snowed), but it is expressed with different feelings (fortunately, unfortunately) with uncertainty (maybe), indicating the source of the message (according to a friend) and the way to formulate thoughts (So).
Dialogue
A conversation between two or more people. Let us recall, as an example, a dialogue from a poem by Korney Chukovsky:
- Who's talking?
- Elephant.
- Where?
- From a camel...
Question-and-answer form of presentation
This is the name given to constructing a text in the form of questions and answers. "What's wrong with a piercing gaze?" — the author asks the question. And he answers to himself: “Everything is bad!”
Separate members of the sentence
Secondary members of a sentence, which are distinguished by commas (or dashes) in writing, and by pauses in speech.
The pilot talks about his adventures, smiling at the listeners (a sentence with a separate circumstance, expressed by an adverbial phrase).
The children went out into the clearing, illuminated by the sun (a sentence with a separate circumstance expressed by a participial phrase).
Without a brother his first listener and admirer, he would hardly have achieved such results.(offer with a separate widespread application).
Nobody, except her sister, didn't know about it(sentence with a separate addition).
I'll come early at six o'clock in the morning (sentence with a separate clarifying circumstance of time).
Figures of speech
At the syntax level, special constructions are distinguished that give expressiveness to speech. They are called figures of speech, as well as stylistic figures. These are antithesis, gradation, inversion, parcellation, anaphora, epiphora, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, etc. Let's look at some of the stylistic figures.
Antithesis
In Russian, antithesis is called opposition. An example of this is the proverb: “Learning is light, but ignorance is darkness.”
Inversion
Inversion is the reverse order of words. As you know, each member of a sentence has its own “legitimate” place, its own position. So, the subject must come before the predicate, and the definition must come before the word being defined. Certain positions are assigned to adverbial and complementary elements. When the order of words in a sentence is violated, we can talk about inversion.
Using inversion, writers and poets achieve the desired sound of a phrase. Remember the poem "Sail". Without inversion, his first lines would sound like this: “A lonely sail whitens in the blue fog of the sea”. The poet used inversion and the lines sounded amazing:
The lonely sail turns white
In the blue sea fog...
Gradation
Gradation is the arrangement of words (usually homogeneous members, in ascending or descending order of their meanings). Let's look at examples: "This optical illusion, hallucination, mirage« (a hallucination is more than an optical illusion, and a mirage is more than an optical illusion). Gradation can be either ascending or descending.
Parcellation
Sometimes, to enhance expressiveness, the boundaries of a sentence are deliberately violated, that is, parcellation is used. It consists of fragmenting a phrase, which results in the formation of incomplete sentences (that is, constructions whose meaning is unclear outside the context). An example of parcellation can be considered a newspaper headline: “The process has begun. “Backward” (“The process has gone backward,” this is what the phrase looked like before fragmentation).
You've probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Means of expression make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without using special lexical figures, because speech will sound poor and ugly.
Let's figure out what types of expressive means the Russian language is and where to find them.
Perhaps at school you wrote essays poorly: the text “didn’t flow”, the words were chosen with difficulty, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a clear thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are put into the head by reading books. However, they alone are not enough to write interestingly, colorfully and easily. You need to develop your skill through practice.
Just compare the next two columns. On the left is text without means of expression or with a minimal amount of them. On the right is text rich in expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.
It would seem like three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! Expressive language helps the viewer see the picture you are trying to describe. There is an art to using them, but it is not difficult to master. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.
For example, in the paragraph of text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the subject is instantly presented as bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat commander cat? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. And there won’t be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly be white, but the reader has long imagined it as gray!
So, syntactic means are special techniques of artistic expression that prove, justify, depict information and engage the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for written, but also for oral speech. Especially if the speech or text is written in . However, in both cases, the means of expression in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of making his way through such a “jungle”.
Existing means of expression
There are a lot of such special techniques, and it is unlikely that you know everything about them. Let's start with the fact that you don't need to use all means of expressiveness at once - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but not skimp. Then you will achieve the desired effect.
Traditionally they are divided into several groups:
- phonetic - most often found in poems;
- lexical (tropes);
- stylistic figures.
Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient tablets - you can print them out and hang them on the wall so that you can re-read them from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.
Phonetic techniques
Among phonetic techniques, the two most common are alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case the consonants are repeated, in the second - the vowels.
This technique is very convenient to use in poems when there are few words, but you need to convey the atmosphere. Yes, and poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to “see” the picture.
Suppose we need to describe a swamp. In the swamp there are reeds that rustle. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but this is not enough to complete the picture.
Do you hear the reeds seem to rustle and hiss silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonant letters are repeated.
Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This one is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. With this, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. A table will help explain what assonance is.
Lexical devices (tropes)
Lexical devices are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that people often use them unconsciously. For example, we can say that our heart is lonely. But the heart cannot actually be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help emphasize the deeper meaning of what is being said.
The main lexical devices include the following tropes:
- epithet;
- comparison as a means of expressive speech;
- metaphor;
- metonymy;
- irony;
- hyperbole and litotes.
Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison pops up in everyone’s speech - this means of expressiveness has become firmly established in everyday life, so it must be used wisely.
Metaphor is a more interesting form of comparison because we are not comparing slow death to cigarettes by using the word “as if.” We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression “dry clouds”. Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. Epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text it is important not to confuse them.
Hyperbole and litotes are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred fires” is a clear hyperbole. And “quietly, quieter than a stream” is litotes. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.
Metonymy and periphrasis are interesting phenomena. Metonymy is a shortening of what is said. For example, there is no need to talk about Chekhov's books as “books that Chekhov wrote.” You can use the expression “Chekhov’s books”, and this will be a metonymy.
And periphrasis is the deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.
Although, with the right skill, tautology can also be a means of expression!
Lexical means of expressiveness in speech also include:
- archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
- historicisms (vocabulary related to a specific historical period);
- neologisms (new vocabulary);
- phraseological units;
- dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.
| Means of expression | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Epithet | A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively. | Bloody sky. (Talks about sunrise.) |
| Comparison as a means of expressive speech | Comparing objects with each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa. | Means of expression, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech. |
| Metaphor | “Hidden comparison” or figurative. More complex than a simple comparison, comparative conjunctions are not used. | Seething anger. (The man gets angry). Sleepy city. (The morning city that has not yet woken up). |
| Metonymy | Replacing words in order to shorten an understandable sentence or avoid tautology. | I read Chekhov’s books (and not “I read books by Chekhov”). |
| Irony | An expression with the opposite meaning. Hidden mockery. | You're a genius, of course! (The irony is that here “genius” is used to mean “stupid”). |
| Hyperbola | Deliberate exaggeration of what was said. | Brighter than a thousand fiery lightning bolts. (Dazzling, bright show). |
| Litotes | Deliberate reduction of what was said. | Weak as a mosquito. |
| Periphrase | Replacement of words in order to avoid tautology. Replacement can only be a related word. | The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of animals, etc. |
| Allegory | An abstract concept that helps to reveal an image. Most often it is an established designation. | Fox meaning cunning, wolf meaning strength and rudeness, turtle meaning slowness or wisdom. |
| Personification | Transferring the properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one. | The lantern seemed to sway on a long thin leg - it reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack. |
Stylistic figures
Stylistic figures often contain special grammatical structures. The most commonly used include:
- anaphora and epiphora;
- compositional joint;
- antithesis;
- oxymoron or paradox;
- inversion;
- parcellation;
- ellipsis;
- rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals;
- asyndeton.
Anaphora and epiphora are often classified as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora is the same beginning of several lines, epiphora is the same ending. Most often they are used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.
A compositional junction is a deliberate “escalation” of a conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The Word helped me become who I am. This technique is called a compositional junction.
Antithesis is the opposition of two antipodal concepts: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Interesting techniques include parcellation, which is used to increase conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - the omission of a sentence member. Often used in exclamations and calls.
| Means of expression | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Anaphora | The same beginning of several lines. | Let's join hands, brothers. Let's hold hands and connect our hearts. Let us take up swords to end the war. |
| Epiphora | Same ending for multiple lines. | I wash it wrong! I'm ironing wrong! Everything is wrong! |
| Compositional joint | One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it. | I didn't know what to do. What to do to survive this storm. |
| Antithesis | Opposition | I came to life every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to demonstrate drama). |
| Oxymoron | Using concepts that contradict each other. | Hot ice, peaceful war. |
| Paradox | An expression that has no direct meaning, but carries an aesthetic meaning. | The hot hands of the dead man were more alive than all the others. Hurry up as slowly as possible. |
| Inversion | Deliberate rearrangement of words in a sentence. | I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in this world. |
| Parcellation | Breaking words down into separate sentences. | He waited. Again. Slouching over, he cried. |
| Ellipsis | Deliberate omission of a word. | Let's get to work! (the word “let’s take” is missing). |
| Gradation | Increasing expression, using synonyms according to the degree of increase. | His eyes, cold, emotionless, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to demonstrate drama). |
Features of the use of means of expression
We should not forget that gestures are also used in spoken Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than ordinary means of expression, but in the skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and bright.
Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into your speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many decorations on yourself, which is why you have become uninteresting. Means of expression are like a skillfully selected accessory. Sometimes you don’t even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.
