As you know, our body is predominantly composed of water. very large, since water is the most important and integral component for us. It is involved in all metabolic processes and has a significant impact on our condition and health. That is why you need to take care of sufficient quantity and quality of water consumed.
Which daily norm water consumption?
It is generally accepted that the daily water requirement for a person is 1.5 – 2 liters. If you suddenly find that you drink less than this norm, then do not worry, since this norm includes not only pure water, but also the liquid that the body receives from food. Sources of water can be: various dishes prepared with water (borscht, soup), coffee, tea, juices, milk, fruits, vegetables, etc. Water should be drunk regularly, at short intervals throughout the day. (6 – 8 glasses per day).
Water perfectly dissolves various substances that are necessary for the full and normal functioning of all organs and tissues. Water in the human body is constantly in a dynamic state. With its participation, almost all biochemical processes and reactions occur on which metabolism depends. Also, water is a good transport system through which all nutrients (vitamins, macro and microelements) are distributed throughout the body.
Water cleanses the body of waste and toxins, controls body temperature, and also removes salts from the body. It has a positive effect on human skin (more than 10% of water is in the skin). By drinking enough water, your skin will be healthy, elastic and toned. This liquid also promotes weight loss, since after drinking water, metabolism in the body accelerates by 20 - 30%.
The role of water in the human body and its functions:
- removes various toxins and waste from the body
- saturates oxygen with moisture during breathing
- all metabolic processes occur due to water
- controls body temperature
- lubricates joints
- Helps absorb various nutrients
- is a good natural solvent for many vitamins, macro and microelements
- protection and buffering of vital organs
Some interesting facts about water:
- how more people drinks water, the faster it is eliminated from the body
- a person can live without water from 3 to 8 days
- loss of more than 10% water can lead to death
- overeating can also cause dehydration
- on average a person consumes 60 – 70 tons of water per year
- Drinking water with high Ph extends life by 10 – 20 years
- water helps
Water before workout:
2 - 3 hours before the start of training, you must drink 400 - 700 ml of water. Why do you need to drink so much water before training when you can take a bottle of water with you and drink it as you go? The fact is that it takes some time to absorb water. While working in the gym, the body temperature rises and strong and rapid sweating occurs, water begins to quickly leave the body.
By the time you want to drink, your body will have lost 2–3% of fluid, which is quite a lot. And before the water you drink is absorbed, the body will lose even more fluid, and this is harmful to health. Therefore, it is necessary to provide the body with the necessary amount of water in advance.
Water during training:
Very significant the role of water in the human body plays during training, as it is needed to maintain the required water balance. As already mentioned, water leaves the body very quickly during training. During dehydration, the amount of blood in the body decreases, which affects its ability to transport oxygen, and all this subsequently affects training performance and human health.
To ensure good training productivity and correct work muscles, you need to constantly maintain fluid levels in the body. To do this, you can take 1–2 liters of water with you and drink it in small sips throughout your workout.
Water after workout:
After training, over the next 2 - 3 hours you need to drink 500 - 700 ml of water in order to replenish lost reserves.
Consequences of lack of water in the body:
The most serious consequence of not having enough water can be dehydration. What is dehydration? Dehydration is a pathological condition of a person that occurs when the level of water in the body decreases below the physiological norm. This can happen when there is insufficient intake of it into the body, or as a result of its rapid loss.
Symptoms of dehydration:
- a person is very thirsty
- small amount of urine
- urine color changes (gets very dark)
- the person experiences severe weakness
- severe fatigue
- low blood pressure
- weak pulse
- loss of consciousness
A person will feel thirsty when 1 - 2% of water (500 - 1000 ml) leaves his body. A loss of 10% of moisture from your own body weight leads to irreversible processes in the body, and a loss of 20% (7000 - 8000 ml) is fatal. Remember that daily water consumption rate is 1.5 – 2 liters.
What should the water be like?
The main quality criterion of water is its Ph. Ph is a measure that shows the level of activity of hydrogen ions in water, thereby quantifying its acidity. Human blood has a Ph of 7.34 – 7.44. This acid-base balance in the human body is the most favorable. Violations of Ph levels in the blood can lead to various diseases. For example, an acidic environment can provoke diseases such as arthritis, osteoporosis and various cardiovascular diseases.
How to find out the Ph of water?
The pH of water can be determined in several accessible and simple ways. The first and most in a simple way there will be a purchase mineral water in bottles that indicate the full composition and Ph of the water. The second way is to use special indicators (litmus, phenolphthalein, sodium benzene sulfonate). This organic matter, which when added to water change color depending on the acidity of the water. The third method is using a Ph-meter, this is a special device that allows you to very accurately determine the acid-base balance of water.
Now you understand how important the role of water in the human body. Water is life! Drink quality water and be healthy!
Sincerely,
Copper (lat. Cuprum) is a soft metal of reddish color, pink in fractures, in places with brown and mottled tarnish. An excellent conductor of heat and electricity, second only to silver in this regard. Copper is well processed by pressure: it is easily drawn into wire and rolled into thin sheets.
Physical properties of copper:
Specific gravity - 8.93 g/cm3;
Specific heat capacity at 20 °C - 0.094 cal/deg;
Melting point - 1083 °C;
Boiling point - 2600 °C;
Linear expansion coefficient (at a temperature of about 20 °C) - 16.7 x10 6 (1/deg);
Thermal conductivity coefficient - 335 kcal/m hour deg;
Specific resistance at 20 °C - 0.0167 Ohm mm 2 /m.
Chemical properties.
In dry air under normal conditions it does not oxidize.
Copper does not interact with hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen even at high temperatures.
Acids that do not have oxidizing properties do not act on copper, for example, hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids. But in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, copper dissolves in these acids to form the corresponding salts:
2Cu + 4HCl + O2 = 2CuCl2 + 2H2O.
The most important copper compounds: oxides Cu 2 O, CuO, Cu 2 O 3; hydroxide Cu(OH) 2, nitrate Cu(NO 3) 2.3H 2 O, sulfide CuS, sulfate (copper sulfate) CuSO 4.5H 2 O, carbonate CuCO 3 Cu(OH) 2, chloride CuCl 2 .2H 2 O .
The fact that copper is an essential element for life became known only in 1928.
ROLE OF COPPER IN THE BODY
The human body contains 100 - 150 mg of copper. 45% of this element is found in muscles, 20% in the liver, 20% in bone tissue and 15% in the heart, kidneys, blood and brain. The main excretion occurs in bile. Copper is one of the important essential microelements that are necessary for normal human life. It is contained in the body in extremely small quantities, but is involved in a large number of biological processes. The role of copper in the body is enormous.
1. Takes an active part in the construction of many proteins and enzymes necessary for the body, as well as in the processes of growth and development of cells and tissues.
2. Participates in hematopoiesis processes. Copper, along with iron, plays an important role in the formation of red blood cells and is involved in the synthesis of hemoglobin and myoglobin.
3. Has a great influence on the condition of the epithelium, bone and connective tissue (in particular, collagen protein contains copper).
4. Copper plays a very important role for blood vessels. Thanks to it, they take the correct shape, remaining strong and elastic for a long time (promotes the formation of elastin - connective tissue, forming an inner layer that functions as a framework for blood vessels).
5. Participates in the functioning of the endocrine system, maintains it normally, and also stimulates the activity of pituitary hormones.
6. Copper plays a big role in enhancing immunity and neutralizing free radicals. It increases the body's resistance to certain infections and has a pronounced anti-inflammatory property.
7. By improving the functioning of the endocrine glands, promoting the production of necessary enzymes and juices, copper normalizes the digestion process and protects digestive system from damage and inflammation.
8. Copper plays an important role in the production of sex hormones in women.
9. Necessary for the synthesis of endorphins, which reduce pain and improve mood.
10. Enhances collagen synthesis, and this protein makes the skin beautiful and elastic.
11. Copper plays a huge role in the formation of the brain and nervous system - it is the main component of the myelin sheaths, without which nerve fibers cannot conduct impulses.
Daily requirement
The body's daily requirement for copper:
- from one year to 3 years - 1 mg;
- from 4 to 6 years – 1.5 mg;
- from 7 to 12 years – 1.8 mg;
- from 13 to 18 years – 2.0 mg;
- after 18 years - 2.5 mg.
During pregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding), the recommended daily doses are 2.5 - 3.0 mg.
Additional intake is recommended for increased physical activity (for example, athletes), as well as for people who abuse alcohol and smoking.
If immunity is reduced, with anemia or various inflammations, you also need to increase daily dose to put the body's work in order.
Pierce a fresh apple with copper wire and leave it overnight. Eat on an empty stomach in the morning. Your daily requirement of copper is guaranteed.
The upper permissible level of copper intake per day is 5 mg.
Toxic dose for humans: more than 250 mg.
Copper is found in almost all vegetables and fruits; there is a lot of it in buckwheat and oatmeal, legumes, potatoes and apples, mushrooms and nuts, chocolate and cocoa. There is a lot of copper in pumpkin seeds, in wheat bran and bran bread, in cabbage, carrots, etc. We can easily obtain enough micronutrients from our normal diet, and artificially increasing its share in the diet is not advisable.
| PRODUCTS | Copper in mg per 100 g edible parts product |
| Fried veal liver | 24 |
| Fried lamb liver | 13 |
| Oysters | 7,5 |
| Spinach | 7 |
| Boiled eels | 6,5 |
| Buckwheat | 5 |
| Dry yeast | 5 |
| Salad | 4 |
| Cocoa powder | 3,8 |
| Sunflower seeds | 2,3 |
| Cashew nuts | 2,1 |
| Oats grain | 2,0 |
| Boiled shrimp | 1,9 |
| Potato | 1,8 |
| Boiled crabs | 1,8 |
| Brazil nuts | 1,8 |
| Rose hips | 1,8 |
| Pumpkin seeds | 1,6 |
| Chocolate | 1,5 |
| Sesame seeds | 1,5 |
| Walnuts | 1,3 |
| Wheat bran | 1,2 |
| Hazelnut | 1,2 |
| Cheese | 1,1 |
| Peanut | 1,0 |
| Almond | 1,0 |
| Currant | 0,8 |
| Mushrooms | 0,7 |
| Raisin | 0,4 |
| Garlic | 0,3 |
| Prunes | 0,3 |
| Beans | 0,2 |
| Bananas | 0,1 |
| Beet | 0,1 |
| Carrot | 0,1 |
While most vitamins and microelements are destroyed during heat treatment of foods, this does not apply to copper. Its quantity will remain unchanged both after cooking and after frying.
Foods high in copper may not be absorbed because you are consuming too much of something that interferes with its absorption. Large quantity Milk casein in the body does not allow copper to be absorbed. And absolutely all dairy products are rich in it. Therefore, if in the morning you eat an omelet, a cheese sandwich and coffee with milk, milk soup for lunch, and add a glass of kefir for dinner, you risk getting a copper deficiency. This doesn't mean you need to give up dairy products - you just need to maintain an optimal balance.
Lack of copper in the body
With a normal diet, copper deficiency practically does not occur. Its deficiency in the body can begin with long-term insufficient intake - less than 1 mg per day. Copper deficiency can also occur for many other reasons:
1. Violation of the processes of regulation of copper metabolism.
2. Disease of gastrointestinal fistula.
3. Long-term use of high doses of zinc and antacids.
4. Copper deficiency is also observed in patients who for a long time are on parenteral nutrition.
5. Alcohol contributes to deficiency, and egg yolk and phytic compounds in cereals can bind copper in the intestines.
Copper deficiency manifests itself in different ways:
- decline in the activity of immune system functions;
- accelerated aging of the body;
- decrease in hemoglobin level;
- enlargement of the thyroid gland;
- lipid metabolism disorder;
- neutropenia and leukopenia (blood diseases) and much more.
Currently, copper deficiency is observed more often than before. This is explained by the fact that nitrogenous fertilizers began to be added to the soil in large quantities, which form ammonia, which can “take” copper from the soil.
Copper deficiency can be caused by certain medications and antibiotics. Various diets and vegetarianism can also reduce its amount in the body. This leads to a decrease in the level of hemoglobin in the blood and diseases such as ischemia, arrhythmia, neuropsychiatric disorders and infertility.
Copper deficiency also leads to growth retardation, weight loss, cholesterol accumulation, heart muscle atrophy, osteoporosis, skin diseases, hair loss, fatigue and frequent infections.
With a chronic deficiency, a very dangerous disease can occur - an aneurysm, characterized by expansion and protrusion of the walls of large blood vessels. Varicose veins also occur, hair turns gray, and the skin becomes wrinkled early.
Excess copper
Excessive content of this substance is no less dangerous for humans than its deficiency, since copper in excess is a highly toxic element. The reasons for excess copper in the body may be problems with metabolic processes, frequent use of copper utensils, improper treatment with copper-containing drugs, occupational diseases, increased content of this substance in drinking water, hemodialysis, magnesium and zinc deficiency, oral hormonal contraceptives.
The main symptoms of excess copper in the body are: muscle pain, anemia, depression, insomnia, irritability, kidney disease, liver disease, gastrointestinal disorders, bronchial asthma, inflammatory diseases, memory impairment.
Excess copper in the body is an almost unreal phenomenon, since it does not accumulate in it. With an adequate diet, we are not threatened by either a lack of copper or its excess in the body.
Interaction of copper with other substances
Increased intake of zinc and molybdenum can lead to a lack of copper in the body. Cadmium, iron, manganese, antacids, tannins can reduce its absorption. Zinc, iron, cobalt (in moderate physiological doses) increase the absorption of this element by the body. In turn, copper can inhibit the body’s absorption of iron, molybdenum, cobalt, zinc, and vitamin A. Oral contraceptives, hormonal agents, and cortisone preparations promote increased removal of copper from the body. The copper content in the body is also affected by:
- alcohol can aggravate its deficiency;
- the yolk of the egg binds copper in the intestines, preventing its absorption;
- an increased content of fructose in the diet can contribute to the deficiency of this microelement;
- phytates (which are binders in cereals and green vegetable leaves) can reduce the ability to absorb copper from food;
- additional consumption of high doses of vitamin C can reduce the absorption of this trace element from food.
Copper water is a wonderful tonic for the lymphatic system, spleen and liver. It is prepared as follows: two copper coins of royal coinage or a couple of plates of vacuum copper must be thoroughly washed in lime water. Then place the copper items in an enamel bowl, pour one and a half liters of water into it and boil until half has boiled away. You need to drink copper water three times a day, two teaspoons. The course is one month.
The thyroid gland and its role in the body
The thyroid gland belongs to the organs of the endocrine system. It consists of two oval bodies weighing 13–15 g each, located on either side of the lower part of the larynx and trachea. The degree of iodine accumulation in the gland indicates the condition of this organ. If the accumulation is slow, then the gland is inactive (hypothyroidism); if it accumulates too quickly, it is overactive (hyperthyroidism). Both are signs of pathology.
Under the influence of iodine, the thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate everything important functions body: metabolic processes of fats, proteins and carbohydrates, function cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, mental and sexual activity. The most important hormone, the production of which is stimulated by iodine, is thyroxine. As needed, it enters the blood and is carried with the blood to organs and tissues. There it performs important functions: enhances oxidative reactions, increases oxygen consumption, regulates the exchange of fat and water, etc. Therefore, the activity of the gland directly affects the synthesis of hormones and their effect on the functioning of the body. But the intensity of the production of these hormones is regulated by another pituitary hormone, which is also produced by the thyroid gland. This relationship is reciprocal, that is, the higher the level of this stimulating hormone of the pituitary gland, the weaker the other two hormones are produced, and vice versa, the weaker the gland works, the higher the level of the regulatory hormone. A normal level of stimulating hormone in the blood means that the thyroid gland is normal. And an increase or decrease in its quantity is already a pathology.
Therefore, the normal functioning of the thyroid gland affects the functioning of the entire body, all its functions and systems. Disturbances in the functioning of the thyroid gland affect the course of pregnancy, leading to anemia, miscarriage, premature placental abruption, and postpartum hemorrhage. Hypo- and hyperthyroidism, that is, decreased and increased function of the thyroid gland, lead to disruption menstrual cycle and infertility, cardiovascular system disorders, and the birth of children with developmental defects.
If hypothyroidism develops in children, it leads to mental retardation and impaired physical development, including growth arrest (the child may remain a dwarf forever) and changes in the proportions of body parts, that is, physical deformity.
Hypofunction of the thyroid gland in adults manifests itself differently. The patient develops swelling of the mucous membranes, associated with water retention in the tissues, and a slow metabolism leads to obesity and rapid aging of the skin. The patient looks much older than his age, and is haunted by constant fatigue and weakness.
Hyperthyroidism is manifested by the development of Graves' disease, in which the metabolism sharply accelerates. As a result, the patient loses weight, his heart activity is disrupted, his limbs tremble, his nervous system suffers, and he even develops bulging eyes. When basal metabolism increases, a lot of nitrogen and creatine are excreted in the urine. Hyperthyroidism, caused by a constant lack of iodine, can lead to an enlargement of the thyroid gland and its degeneration. It protrudes in the neck area in the form of a goiter, which is why the disease is called endemic goiter. It develops in people living in areas poor in iodine, and is dangerous because it can lead to deafness and cretinism. For the treatment of endemic goiter, iodine preparations are prescribed.
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From the book How to Stop Snoring and Let Others Sleep author Yulia Sergeevna PopovaThyroid gland The thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland. In a healthy adult, its mass is 20–30 g (it decreases with age). The gland gets its name from the thyroid cartilage and does not resemble a shield in any way. This is an unpaired organ
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The human organ is the liver. It is unpaired and located on the right side abdominal cavity. The liver performs about 70 different functions. All of them are so important for the functioning of the body that even a slight disruption in its functioning leads to serious illnesses. In addition to participating in digestion, it cleanses the blood of poisons and toxins, is a storehouse of vitamins and minerals, and performs many other functions. To help this organ work without interruption, you need to know what the role of the liver is in the human body.
Basic information about this body
The liver is located in the right hypochondrium and takes up a lot of space in the abdominal cavity because it is the largest internal organ. Its weight ranges from 1200 to 1800 grams. Its shape resembles a convex mushroom cap. It got its name from the word “furnace”, since this organ is very high temperature. The most complex chemical processes constantly take place there, and work goes on without interruption.
It is impossible to unambiguously answer the question of what the role of the liver is in the human body, because all the functions that it performs are vital for it. Therefore, this organ has regenerative abilities, that is, it can repair itself. But the cessation of its activities leads to the death of a person within a couple of days.
Protective function of the liver
More than 400 times a day, all the blood passes through this organ, cleansing itself of toxins, bacteria, poisons and viruses. The barrier role of the liver is that its cells break down all toxic substances, process them into a harmless water-soluble form and remove them from the body. They work like a complex chemical laboratory, neutralizing toxins that enter the body with food and air and are formed as a result of metabolic processes. What toxic substances does the liver cleanse the blood of?
From preservatives, dyes and other additives found in food products.
From bacteria and microbes entering the intestines, and from the products of their vital activity.
From alcohol, drugs and other toxic substances that enter the bloodstream with food.
From exhaust gases and heavy metals from the surrounding air.
From excess hormones and vitamins.
From toxic products resulting from metabolism, such as phenol, acetone or ammonia.
Digestive function of the liver
It is in this organ that proteins, fats and carbohydrates coming from the intestines are converted into an easily digestible form. The role of the liver in the digestion process is enormous, because it is there that cholesterol, bile and many enzymes are formed, without which this process is impossible. They are released into the intestines through the duodenum and help in the digestion of food. The role of bile is especially important, which not only breaks down fats and promotes the absorption of proteins and carbohydrates, but also has a bactericidal effect, destroying pathogenic microflora in the intestines.
The role of the liver in metabolism
Carbohydrates supplied with food are converted into glycogen only in this organ, which enters the blood in the form of glucose as needed. The process of gluconeogenesis provides the body with the required amount of glucose. The liver controls the level of insulin in the blood depending on the person's needs.
This organ is also involved in protein metabolism. It is in the liver that albumin, prothrombin and other proteins important for the functioning of the body are synthesized. Almost all the cholesterol involved in the breakdown of fats and the formation of certain hormones is also formed there. In addition, the liver takes an active part in water and mineral metabolism. It can accumulate up to 20% of blood and
serves as a repository of many minerals and vitamins.
Participation of the liver in the process of hematopoiesis
This organ is called the “blood depot”. In addition to the fact that up to two liters of it can be stored there, hematopoiesis processes take place in the liver. It synthesizes globulins and albumins, proteins that ensure its fluidity. The liver is involved in the formation of iron, which is necessary for the synthesis of hemoglobin. In addition to toxic substances, this organ breaks down red blood cells, resulting in the production of bilirubin. It is in the liver that proteins are formed that perform transport functions for hormones and vitamins.
Storage of useful substances
Speaking about the role of the liver in the human body, it is impossible not to mention its function of accumulating substances necessary for life. What is this organ a repository of?
1. This is the only place where glycogen is stored. The liver stores it and releases it into the blood as glucose as needed.
2. About two liters of blood are kept there and are only used in cases of severe blood loss or shock.
3. The liver is a repository of vitamins necessary for the normal functioning of the body. It contains especially a lot of vitamins A and B12.
4. This organ forms and accumulates cations of metals necessary for the body, such as iron or copper.
What can lead to liver dysfunction?
If for some reason this organ cannot work correctly, then various diseases occur. You can immediately understand what the role of the liver is in the human body if you see what disruptions in its work lead to:
Decreased immunity and constant colds;
Blood clotting disorders and frequent bleeding;
Severe itching, dry skin;
Hair loss, acne;
Appearance diabetes mellitus and obesity;
Various gynecological diseases, such as early menopause;
Digestive disorders, manifested by frequent constipation, nausea and loss of appetite;
Nervous disorders - irritability, depression, insomnia and frequent headaches;
Disorders of water metabolism, manifested by edema.
Very often the doctor treats these symptoms without noticing that the cause is liver destruction. There are no nerve endings inside this organ, so a person may not experience pain. But everyone should know what role the liver plays in their life and try to support it. You need to give up alcohol, smoking, spicy and fatty foods. Limit the use of medications, products containing preservatives and dyes.
Water makes up 75% of the Earth's biomass, 65% of the total mass of the animal body. Water provides absorption and mechanical movement of nutrients and metabolic products, and is a universal solvent. Participates in the processes of swelling, osmosis, creates an oncotic addition in the blood and tissues. Water is characterized by high specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity; it ensures the maintenance of body temperature. Water is a highly polar compound, causes the dissociation of electrolytes, causes hydration, participates in hydrolytic decomposition, water itself is the end product of metabolism in the process of biological oxidation.
All basic chemical reactions in the cell - biosynthesis, enzymatic catalysis - occur with the participation of water. A water molecule is an electric dipole, dipole moment 1.86. Water molecules are characterized by hydrogen bonding, which largely determines its properties and significance. Hydrogen bonds occur between the partial negative charge of the oxygen atom of one water molecule and the partial positive charge of the hydrogen atom of the neighboring one. Each water molecule is connected to four H 2 O molecules, forming a network of hydrogen bonds (Fig. 13.1.).
Rice. 13.1. Formation of a network of hydrogen bonds.
Under external influences, the network of hydrogen bonds is rearranged (dissolution of various substances, formation of steam, ice), this determines a number of properties of water. There are voids between water molecules that can be filled with solute particles. This is very important property water as a solvent. Thus, in one liter of water, only 370 ml is occupied by its molecules, and 630 ml constitutes the intermolecular space, where various processes occur during dissolution, diffusion, and hydrolytic splitting.
Water has a very low viscosity, which gives aqueous solutions good fluidity and rapid movement of liquids.
In the body, water is found in free and bound (immobilized) form. Free water is found in blood plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, digestive juices, and urine. There is little free water in the intercellular space; it is retained there by capillary forces. Free water ensures the flow of nutrients to the tissues and the removal of final metabolic products from them.
Bound water is not capable of free movement. Part of the water is associated with proteins (with polar groups) - this is hydration water. Every 100 g of protein can bind 18-20 g of water. For 1 nucleic acid molecule there are 100,000 water molecules, protein - 40,000 and lipids - 1,500 water molecules. Hydration water does not freeze when cooled to O o C and below, has an increased density (1.48-2.4), and substances that are usually soluble in water do not dissolve in it. These differences are due to the ordered arrangement of water molecules (dipoles) around the polar groups of hydrophilic colloids.
Part of the immobilized water is located in supramolecular cellular structures (membranes, organelles, fibrillar aggregates). Such water retains the ability to dissolve salts and soluble substances, ensures a high rate of chemical reactions in tissues, and helps maintain the constant shape of these organelles. Thus, the intensity of oxidative phosphorylation depends on the degree of mitochondrial swelling, and the rate of protein synthesis (up to 80-90%) depends on the saturation of ribosomes with water.
The amount of hydration water in the body decreases with age, as a result of a decrease in the ability of colloids to hydrate. Colloids of the cytoplasm gradually undergo syneresis, as a result of which the tissues lose their elasticity and shrink.
Animals deprived of water die quickly. For example, a well-fed dog can withstand fasting for 100 days, but without water it dies after 10 days. An animal can live with a complete absence of fat reserves and a loss of up to 50% of proteins, but the loss of 10% of water causes severe changes, and the loss of 15-20% of water leads to death. The need for water and its distribution in tissues varies depending on the composition of the feed, physiological state, productivity, etc. Animals in the desert can survive without water for quite a long time, due to endogenous water. The oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrates produces 0.55 g of water; 1 g of proteins – 0.41 g of water; 1 g fat – 1.07 g water.
Among the representatives of the lower animal and plant world there are forms that can remain without water for a long time and then dry out. In this case, they do not die, but go into a state of suspended animation. If the humidity of the external environment increases, they return to active life again. These forms include rotifer worms, bacteria, some insects, and lichens.
Animals' need for water is satisfied mainly by receiving it directly from the outside and by eating succulent feed. The body of a cow, for example, takes 40-50 liters of water per day, in addition to gastrointestinal tract Another 120-130 liters of water are released as part of the intestinal juices, of which only 10% is excreted in the feces, and the rest is absorbed back into the blood. Water is constantly lost from the body through urine, sweat, secretions (milk), and exhaled air.
Regulation of water metabolism is carried out by the central nervous system, the action of certain hormones. For example, neurohypophysis vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) promotes the readsorption of water from primary urine; Aldosterone (hormone of the adrenal cortex) promotes sodium retention in the body, thereby retaining water in the body, because sodium cations increase tissue hydration.
The amount of water in tissues increases with kidney disease, disorders of the cardiovascular system, protein starvation, and cirrhosis of the liver. An increase in water retention in the intercellular space leads to edema.
Tissue electrolytes. Water exchange is closely related to electrolyte exchange. The importance of mineral salts in animal and human nutrition has been studied in sufficient detail. Animals receive minerals in feed and drinking water. Therefore, there is a direct connection between mineral nutrition and the environment. Almost all elements earth's crust found in plant and animal tissues. Insufficiency or excess content of individual elements in the environment, and as a result - in feed - leads to various violations (the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky, A.P. Vinogradov, J.V. Peive, V.V. Kovalsky, etc.) . Problems of biogeochemistry have been studied especially intensively in recent decades. Individual areas of the earth differ from each other chemical composition soils and natural waters - they may have increased or decreased content of certain chemical elements. On this basis, endemic diseases (endemos - local) develop in animals and humans. In our country, endemic areas for goiter due to iodine deficiency have been studied. In the non-Black Earth regions of the Russian Federation, a reduced content of cobalt, iodine, and copper has been described as a result of acobaltosis, vitamin B2 deficiency, anemia, and endemic goiter. There is antagonism between individual elements when they act on the body, for example, between Ca 2+ and Zn 2+; Zn 2+ and Cu 2+ ; Cu 2+ and Mo 2+ ; Mo 2+ and S 2+ ; Co 2+ and Mn 2+ etc. Disorders of mineral metabolism in animals are observed in connection with pollution environment, intensive farming technology.
Metal ions in the body are considered as “complexing agents”. They are found in this form in enzymes; over 300 enzymes are known to contain metals. In some cases, metalloenzymes are strongly bound to the metal (true), in other cases the metals are loosely bound.
“True metalloenzymes” are involved in the redox processes of the body. The active centers of these enzymes, as a rule, include strictly defined cations that cannot be replaced by others. True metalloenzymes most often contain copper, molybdenum, and zinc (Cu 2+, Mo 2+, Zn 2+).
In enzymes where the metal is loosely bound to the apoenzyme, the mineral component does not represent strict specificity and can be replaced by other similar ones. chemical properties metals.
The biological activity of elements in the body largely depends on their atomic structure: with an increase in atomic mass, as a rule, the toxicity of elements increases and their percentage content decreases.
The body contains only 2-3% of minerals, but they are distributed unevenly. Sodium is found in large quantities in various body fluids. Potassium - inside cells, calcium, magnesium, fluorine - in bone tissue.
Minerals are absorbed mainly in the small intestine, and some ions are absorbed already in the stomach, as well as in the large intestine. Their absorption is an active, controlled, complex process. After salts are absorbed, their ions are deposited selectively.
Calcium, magnesium, fluorine, strontium, cesium, rubidium, beryllium, aluminum, lead, tin, titanium are deposited in bone tissue. Sodium, potassium - in muscles, skin. Iron, copper, cobalt, manganese, nickel, molybdenum, selenium, etc. accumulate in the liver.
The main importance of minerals is the regulation of physical and chemical processes in the tissues of the body. They take part in the formation of the tertiary and quaternary structure of biopolymers, which ensures the normal functioning of enzymatic activity, hormonal activity, the implementation of genetic information embedded in nucleic acids, and the formation of supramolecular structures of cellular formations. For example, the active form of insulin is formed with zinc ions; the biological activity of ribonucleic acids manifests itself with the participation of zinc, manganese, and nickel ions; association and dissociation of ribosomes into 60 S and 40 S subparticles, the formation of the tertiary structure of transport ribonucleic acids is associated with magnesium ions, oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria and free oxidation occurs with the participation of iron and copper ions.
Minerals take part in enzymatic catalysis. Many enzymes exhibit activity with the participation of metal ions. Often the metal ion bond is weak, i.e. The metal ion is a cofactor. In the form of a complex with a metal, the enzyme exhibits maximum activity, acquiring the appropriate spatial configuration: the metal ion participates in the formation of the tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins and nucleic acids. About 100 enzymes are known, the activity of which is determined by the ions Na +, K +, Cl -, Zn 2+; multimer enzymes are formed with the participation of metal ions Mg +, Mn +, Zn +, Ca 2+, etc.
In some cases, metal ions are tightly bound to enzymes, i.e. are coenzymes. These include metalloprotein enzymes containing Cu 2+, Fe 2+ ions - iron-sulfur proteins, cytochromes, etc.
Minerals have a close connection with the metabolism of nucleic acids. Thus, the secondary and tertiary structure of DNA and RNA is supported by Fe 2+, Cu 2+, Mn 2+, Mg 2+, Co 2+ ions. Enzymes that accelerate the breakdown and synthesis of nucleic acids, nucleotides, nucleosides, purines, pyrimidines are activated by metal ions, where magnesium ions play a particularly important role. Important role Metals play in the metabolism of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
