Judaism origin. Gods in Judaism. The influence of Judaism on modern culture

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According to historians, this was the year 621 BC. This year, King Josiah of Judah issued a decree prohibiting the worship of all gods except one. Theologians believe that Judaism was already professed by the first people: Adam and Eve. Consequently, the time of the creation of the world and man was at the same time the time of the emergence of Judaism.

Judaism is the monotheistic national religion of the Jews. When asked where Judaism arose, both historians and theologians answer the same: in Palestine. Judaism is actually the state religion of Israel.

Many of them are strong proponents of the documentary hypothesis, which argues that the Torah (Pentateuch) acquired its modern form through the amalgamation of several originally independent literary sources, rather than being written entirely by Moses. For Abraham, God is the supreme God, to whom a believer can turn, God, he does not need temples and priests, is omnipotent and omniscient. Abraham left his family, which did not abandon the Assyrian-Babylonian beliefs, and until his death in Canaan he wandered from place to place, preaching faith in the only God.

Around the 14th century. BC Numerous West Semitic tribes, including some members of the Patriarchal line, migrated to Egypt. Leaving Egypt around 1250 BC. At the time of the cataclysms (Exodus), the Israelis found a religious and national awakening at Sinai, where, according to biblical tradition, God was revealed to them. Led by their leader and teacher Moses, they accepted the Torah as divine law. This event will become the starting point for all subsequent Jewish history.

• The most ancient period: the origin of beliefs and archaic cults.
• Moses and the exodus to Israel.
• Formation of the concepts of monotheism and God's chosenness in the Palestinian and post-exilic periods.
• The period of diaspora and the formation of sects.
• Judaism after the emergence of Christianity.
• Sects and movements in the Middle Ages, modern and contemporary times.

1. Creed of Judaism.
2. Ethics of Judaism and cult.
3. Judaism in the modern world.

Judaism ( mosaicism) - one of the few national religions of the ancient world, preserved from minor changes to this day. Included a significant part in Christianity and Islam. Jews are an ethno-religious group that includes those who were born Jewish and those who converted to Judaism. In 2010, the number of Jews worldwide was estimated at 13.4 million, or about 0.2% of the world's total population. About 42% of all Jews live in Israel and about 42% live in the United States and Canada, with most of the rest living in Europe.

In most languages, the concepts “Jew” and “Jew” are designated by one term and are not differentiated in conversation, which corresponds to the interpretation of Jewry by Judaism itself. In the modern Russian language, there is a division of the concepts “Jew” and “Jew”, originating from the Greek language and culture, denoting, respectively, the ethnicity of Jews and the religious component of Judaism. IN English there is a word judaic (Judaic, Jewish), derived from the Greek Ioudaios - a broader concept than Jews.

1. Sources: Old Testament, Talmud.

Bible in Greek means "books" (translation of Hebrew " soferim"). The Hebrew Bible (in Christianity the Old Testament) - Tanakh - the name of the Hebrew accepted in Hebrew Holy Scripture. Consists of the following books:

1. Torah - "The Pentateuch of Moses." Translation of names from Hebrew: In the beginning, Names, And called, In the desert, Speeches.
2. Neviim - Prophets - include, in addition to the prophetic, some books that today are considered to be historical chronicles. "Early Prophets": the books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel (1 and 2 Samuel) and 1 and 2 Kings (3 and 4 Kings). "Late Prophets", including 3 books of the "major prophets" (Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel) and 12 "minor prophets". In the manuscripts, the “minor prophets” made up one scroll and were considered one book.
3. Ketuvim - Scriptures - include the works of the sages of Israel and prayer poetry. Among Ketuvim, a collection of “five scrolls” stood out, including the books Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther, collected in accordance with the annual cycle of readings in the synagogue.

The Tanakh contains 24 books. The composition of the books is almost identical to the Old Testament, but differs in the order of the books. The Catholic and Orthodox canons of the Old Testament may include additional books that are not part of the Tanakh (Apocrypha). As a rule, these books are part of the Septuagint - despite the fact that their Hebrew source has not survived, and in some cases probably did not exist.

The Jewish counting tradition combines the 12 minor prophets into one book, and also counts the pairs of Samuel 1, 2, Kings 1, 2, and Chronicles 1, 2 as one book. Ezra and Nehemiah are also combined into one book. In addition, sometimes pairs of the books of Judges and Ruth, Jeremiah and Eich are conditionally combined, so that the total number of books of the Tanakh is equal to 22 according to the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In the Christian tradition, each of these books is considered as separate, thus speaking of the 39 books of the Old Testament. Canon: The Masoretic text is a version of the Hebrew text of the Tanakh, transmitted unchanged for many centuries. The text is based on variants developed and distributed by the Masoretes in the 8th-10th centuries AD. e. The unified text was compiled from several earlier texts of the Tanakh; at the same time, vowels were added to the text.

Jewish commentators distinguish several layers of understanding of the Torah.

1. Pshat is a literal interpretation of the meaning of a biblical or Talmudic text.
2. Remez (lit. hint) - “meaning extracted with the help of hints contained in the text; correlation of one fragment with others in similar places.”
3. Drash is the interpretation of a biblical or Talmudic text by combining logical and sophistic constructions.
4. Sod (lit. secret) is the Kabbalistic meaning of the text, accessible only to the elite who have learned all other meanings.

Other sources on the history of Judaism: Josephus ("Antiquities of the Jews", "The Jewish War"), Dead Sea Scrolls, Apocrypha.

After the expulsion of Jews from Palestine in the 1st-2nd centuries. AD (Jewish War and revolts against Rome) and dispersion throughout the Mediterranean is created Talmud (Teaching) - a huge code of religious and legal rules, worldly and religious wisdom. Compiled in the III-V centuries. among Babylonian and Palestinian Jews (2 editions). A central tenet of Orthodox Judaism is the belief that the Oral Torah was received by Moses during his stay on Mount Sinai, and its contents were passed down orally from generation to generation for centuries, in contrast to the Tanakh, the Jewish Bible, which is called the Written Torah ( Written Law).

Sometimes in the Talmud two parts or layers are distinguished:

1. Mishnah(Repetition) - interpretation of the law (in Hebrew) - the first written text containing the fundamental religious precepts of Orthodox Judaism.
2. Gemara(Completion) - exegesis of the exegesis (in Aramaic) - a compilation of discussions and analyzes of the text of the Mishnah conducted by the Amoraim (teachers of the law).

Each of them is divided into 2 parts:

1. Halakha(Law) - clarification of laws and ritual rules
2. Haggadah(Lore) - legends, parables, legal incidents, etc.

In the narrow sense of the word, Talmud means the Babylonian Talmud. Later in the VI-X centuries. Various commentaries were added to the Talmud - Midrashim.

Subsequently, the works of theologians and authoritative leaders of Jewish communities also began to play the role of sources.

2. The main stages of the history of Judaism.

The history of Judaism is divided into the following major periods of development:

• “biblical” Judaism (10th century BC - 6th century BC),
• Second Temple Judaism (6th century BC - 2nd century AD), including Hellenistic Judaism (after 323 BC),
• Talmudic Judaism (II century AD - XVIII century AD),
• modern Judaism (1750 to present)

Judaism arose in the 2nd millennium BC. based on the polytheistic rituals of the nomadic Jewish tribes of Northern Arabia, and after the conquest of Palestine in the 13th century. absorbed the religious ideas of local agricultural peoples.

The most ancient period: the origin of beliefs and archaic cults.

Archaic cults in Judaism include:

• Family cults.
• Funeral cult.
• Cattle breeding cult.
• Numerous taboos.

ABOUT ancestral cults demonstrates the veneration of the spirits of ancestors. Thus, the book of Genesis describes how one of Jacob’s wives stole her father’s idols during her flight. Idols ( teraphim) were family patrons. The father was angry not so much for the flight of his daughters and son-in-law, but for the kidnapping, he caught up and demanded the return of the idols. In the Book of Kings, David says, “We have a kindred sacrifice in our city.” Also, tribal cults can be traced in legends about patriarchs; their images are considered as the personification of tribal divisions. In ancient times, religious honors were given to ancestors.

Funeral cult among the ancient Jews it was simple. The dead were buried in the ground. Ideas about the afterlife were very vague. There was no belief in retribution after death: God punished people for their sins in this life, or their offspring. There are episodes in the Bible in which God punishes the guilt of the fathers on children to the third and fourth generation. They believed in the ability to summon the shadows (souls) of the dead and talk with them, for example, King Saul ordered the sorceress to summon the shadow of the deceased Samuel.

Co pastoral cult connect the origin of Easter (Passover), which is believed to have a totemistic origin and was originally dedicated to the spring sacrifice of the first offspring of the herd (Passover later became associated with the exodus of the Jews from Egypt). Also, the nomadic lifestyle of the ancient Jews reflects the mythical image of Azazel, to whom they sacrificed a goat (“scapegoat”) - they drove him alive into the desert, placing all the sins of the people on his head (atonement sacrifice). In the nomadic era, there was also a lunar cult, with which the celebration of Saturday, which originates from the full moon holiday, is associated.

The Jewish religion is characterized by many prohibitions ( taboo), related to food and sex life, in which they see a reflection of the most ancient cults. For example, the ban on eating the meat of certain animals (pork, camel, hare, jerboa and some birds) has existed since nomadic times, as well as the ban on eating blood, which was considered the soul of the body. The rite of circumcision arose from initiations - initiations into adult life. It represented the sanctification of marriage, and later came to be seen as a sign of the covenant.

Moses and the Exodus to Israel
The actual emergence of Judaism as a religion is usually associated with the name Moses(hence one of the names of this religion is mosaic), and also Yahweh- the central figures of the entire religion. At first, Yahweh was the god of only the Jews (the Levite tribe), and then became the national god of all Hebrew-Israelites. At the same time, the existence of other gods was not excluded: each people had its own patron god (henotheism).

The formation of the image of Yahweh and his cult took place during the conquest of Palestine. Yahweh acts primarily as a warrior and leader in the fight against all enemies ( hosts- God of armies). He helped in battles and ordered the conquest of Palestine. Its characteristic features at this time are mercilessness, bloodthirstiness and cruelty: “they killed everything that breathed,” “for it was from the Lord that they hardened their hearts,” “they were destroyed as the Lord commanded Moses,” etc. Yahweh gave Moses laws - commandments (Exodus 20.1-17), which were to become ethical code Jews

Formation of the concepts of monotheism and God's chosenness in the Palestinian and post-exilic periods

The conquest of Palestine led to a change in the entire life of the ancient Jews - from nomadic to settled - and religion. At this time, statehood is being formalized. Mixing with the locals led to the veneration of local deities baals(community and city patrons). Yahweh was revered, but although Solomon in the 10th century. BC and built a luxurious temple in Jerusalem; there was no centralization of the cult yet. Agricultural cults and holidays entered the life of the Jews: mazzot(the spring festival of unleavened bread, which merged with the cattle-breeding Passover), Shebbuot- Pentecost (wheat harvest festival), Sukkot(Feast of Tabernacles in honor of the harvest of fruits, etc.

The entire cult was concentrated in the hands of a separate and hereditary group of priests from the Levites. There were also wizards and fortune tellers (mentioned in the Bible). Played a special role Nazirites- people dedicated or dedicated to God. They observed strict rules of ritual purity: they limited themselves in food, did not drink wine, did not touch the body of the deceased, and did not cut their hair. They were considered saints, and they were credited with prophetic knowledge and extraordinary abilities. The rules of the Nazirite were set forth in the Book of Numbers of the Bible. They also appear there legendary personalities, For example, Samson.

From the 8th century BC Prophets appear among the Jews. Initially, these were fortunetellers with shamanic traits (they went into a frenzy). Over time, the prophets became spokespersons for popular discontent: they acted as denouncers of the sins of the people, advocated for the restoration of the cult of Yahweh, and preached the idea of ​​moral sin, and not ritual sin, as before (Isaiah 1:16-17). Some acted as political publicists and formed opposition to the official temple priesthood.

In 621 BC. King Josiah carried out a religious reform aimed at sharply centralizing the cult. The cult objects of all other gods except Yahweh were removed from the Jerusalem Temple, by order of the king, all the priests-servants of these cults, as well as spellcasters, wizards, etc. were killed, and the Easter holiday was officially restored. With the help of religious centralization, the king sought to achieve political centralization.

However, in 586 BC. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Jerusalem Temple. The Jews were subjected to Babylonian captivity for half a century. This also had an impact on religion. The Jews borrowed some elements of Babylonian cosmology and mythology. In some studies: cherubs are correlated with winged bulls (kerubs), the biblical characters Mordecai and Esther are derived from Marduk and Ishtar (the holiday of Purim in honor of salvation), Babylonian features are found in the story of the creation of the world, the story of the flood has parallels with the Babylonian myth of Utnapishtim. It is believed that Jews took the image of the evil spirit Satan from Mazdaism (originally the Jews believed that evil comes from God, as punishment).

In 538 BC. The Jews were returned from captivity by the Persian king Cyrus. The Jerusalem Temple was restored. However, after returning, acute internal contradictions began. The Jerusalem priesthood was used to curb the people. No cult centers were allowed, sacrifices to Yahweh could only be made in Jerusalem, purification sacrifices were required at every turn. The priesthood was a strictly closed caste.

During this period, the main features of Judaism were formed: strict monotheism (for the first time in history!) and the centralization of the cult, the canonization of holy books took place. The tribal god Yahweh becomes the one god-creator of the world and almighty. The Bible is edited in the spirit of monotheism (the final edition was created by the 5th century BC). The concept of God's chosenness begins to play an important role, which becomes the basis of consolation instead of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution after death. Its essence is as follows: if Jews suffer, then they themselves are to blame, because they sin and violate the commandments of God, therefore God punishes them. But despite this, they remain the chosen people. Yahweh will forgive them anyway and exalt them above all the nations on earth. This promoted the separation of Jews from all other peoples, including a ban on marriage.

Thus, in the post-exilic period, 7 main elements of Judaism were formed:

1. The doctrine of God, the essence of the Universe and man.
2. The concept of God's chosenness.
3. Scripture.
4. A set of religious laws that also covers the area of ​​secular law.
5. Order of religious ritual.
6. System of religious institutions.
7. Code of Moral and Ethical Relations.

The period of diaspora and the formation of sects.
In the Hellenistic era (from the end of the 4th century BC) the period of dispersion begins ( diaspora) Jews throughout the ancient world and the formation of a synagogue organization takes place. Synagogue(from the Greek gathering, meeting) is not only a house of prayer, but also the center of public life, as well as the center of government for the Jewish community outside of Judea. The common treasury and property were kept in it, the synagogue was engaged in charity work, prayers and Holy Scripture were read in it, but sacrifices were not made in it, which were made only in the Jerusalem temple. The spread of Jews around the world contributed to overcoming national isolation and limitations. Fans of Judaism appeared among non-Jews - proselytes.

Great value had a translation of the Bible into Greek - the Septuagint (III-II centuries BC). This contributed to the rapprochement of Hellenistic religious philosophy and Judaism and the emergence of syncretic religious-idealistic systems, one of which was created by Philo of Alexandria (10s of the 1st century BC - 40s of the 1st century AD) - Jewish- Hellenistic philosopher, theologian and exegete.

Philo, brought up in Hellenic culture, saw the truths of Greek philosophy behind the text of the Pentateuch. His philosophical system is theocentric. God is seen as a true being. He strictly distinguishes between the essence of God and his existence, and in this regard develops both negative (apophatic) and positive theology: every person can conclude that there is a Creator God from contemplation of the order of the natural world; but the knowledge of the divine essence lies beyond the limits of the human mind. In His essence, God is unknowable, unnameable, indefinable and inexpressible. According to Philo, the highest Deity is Jehovah of the Pentateuch of Moses - the absolutely transcendental “Existing God” to the world, above the Good, the One (or Monad). While remaining transcendent, God is connected to the cosmos as its creator and providential ruler. According to Philo, the two main names of Jehovah - “God” and “Lord” - indicate two corresponding powers: the first denotes his creative power, the second his power. The doctrine of the divine logos is intended to explain how God is connected with everything that is not himself. Together with Sophia (“the mother of all things”) and Justice, the transcendental God gives birth to the Son and his most perfect creation - the Logos-Word, which is the “tool” of God’s creative thought, the “place” where ideas are located. It is the Logos-Word that creates the spiritual and material world and man; thanks to its activity, ideas-logoi create the world. Man is created in the image and likeness of God, and this means that he is intelligent. The goal of earthly human life is considered by Philo, in accordance with the famous formula of Plato, as “likening to God,” and this “likening” means “knowledge of God.” However, it is impossible to fully know God, because then likening would turn out to be identification, which is impossible in the case of the creator and his creation. The goal a person can achieve in this life is to become wise. Philo personifies the highest ideal in the image of Moses. The path to the highest ethical ideal of a sage lies through the manifestation of natural (given from God) noble inclinations (“the virtue of Isaac”), education (“the virtue of Abraham”) and ascetic exercise (“the virtue of Jacob”). Philo's views had a huge influence on the formation Christian philosophy, and above all on the exegetical method and theological views of the first Christian philosophers.

The deprivation of Judea of ​​political independence and the establishment of foreign power contributed to the emergence of faith in supernatural help for liberation from oppressors and faith in a deliverer - messiah. With the doctrine of the Messiah came the doctrine of the coming age - eschatology, about future bliss, another world where the righteous will receive their well-deserved reward. A vague belief in an afterlife and the resurrection of the dead appears. Under the influence of the study of the prophets is created apocalyptic.

In the II-I centuries. BC movements and sects appear in Judaism, the main of which were Sadducees, Pharisees and Essenes.

As part of the current Sadducees there were members of the priestly families, as well as the military and agricultural aristocracy. The founder of this direction was Zadok- high priest during the reign of Solomon. From the end of the 2nd century. BC The Sadducees were the support of the ruling dynasty. They scrupulously adhered to the temple cult, strictly followed religious tradition, observed rituals, but only on the basis of written tradition, rejecting oral teaching. Any attempts at a new interpretation of the “Law” were considered as a protest and an encroachment on their monopoly rights. They sought to concentrate spiritual and temporal power. In their philosophical and theological teachings, the Sadducees rejected the predestination of destinies, denied the afterlife and resurrection of the dead, the existence of angels and evil spirits, and taught that in the next century there would be neither eternal bliss nor eternal torment for righteous and wicked people. The Biblical Encyclopedia says about the Sadducees: “The teachings of these materialistic skeptics were not particularly widespread.” After the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70, the Sadducees left the historical arena.

Sect Pharisees (from Hebrew “to excommunicate”, “to separate”) arose after the Babylonian captivity. According to one version, the Pharisees in the 2nd century. BC separated from Hasidim(“pious”), who adhered to national isolation and the requirements of the law. The sect consisted mainly of the middle strata of the population, but, above all, “scientific sages” (professional lawyers). Their total number was quite significant: for example, at the turn of the old and new eras, 6 thousand Pharisees refused to take the oath to the Roman Emperor Augustus. The Pharisees were considered authoritative interpreters of the laws and, unlike the Sadducees, applied their interpretation to new historical conditions. In this regard, they developed a coherent system hermeneutics(a method of extracting secret meaning from a text) and logical techniques of deduction and syllogism (a conclusion consisting of two premise judgments, from which a third judgment follows - a conclusion). With the help of these techniques, new laws were derived from the Pentateuch or old ones were modified in relation to new conditions. The Pharisees recognized divine predestination, believed in the immortality of the soul, in angels and spirits, in resurrection of the dead and in the afterlife reward. They actively participated in political life, and during the period of Roman rule, most of them formed the party of “peace with Rome.” Therefore, the word “Pharisee” over time became associated with demagoguery, hypocrisy, and hypocrisy. The Pharisees reached their peak after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple and operated in synagogues in the Diaspora. They created the first and main part of the Talmud.

Essenes or Essens (from Aramais.hasaya - “pious”) existed from the second half of the 2nd century. BC They mainly lived in communities in the area of ​​the western coast of the Dead Sea. They had special principles of social organization: they rejected private property, slavery, and trade. They practiced collective life and common property (not only the cash register was common, but even clothing). They refused to marry and have sex, believing that this would destroy their community, although some recognized marriage as a means of continuing the human race. Admission to community membership occurred only after a special test. The Essenes believed in one god, in the immortality of the soul, but also in the transmigration of souls after death. They considered their main task to be the preservation and elevation of purity of morals and piety. Therefore, they were very religious and led a strict moral life.

There were other, less widespread sects. So, therapists(from the Greek “healing”) considered themselves healers in the service of God, treated the sick, despised sensual pleasures, and preached pacifism. Zealots(from Greek “zealots”) in religious views they had similarities with the Pharisees, but diverged from them in their political program - they were characterized by patriotism and an anti-Roman orientation. The Zealots elevated their love of freedom to the level of religious dogma: God is the only ruler of the world, therefore one should not pay taxes to the Roman emperor. Sicarii(“Daggermen”) were a religious-terrorist group and physically destroyed the Romans and pro-Roman Jews.

During the Hellenistic period, the prerequisites for Christianity were formed, which emerged from Judaism and Hellenistic-Roman culture at the beginning of the 1st century AD.

Judaism after the emergence of Christianity.
In 70 AD. after the anti-Roman uprising, the Jerusalem Temple was destroyed, and in 133 Jerusalem was destroyed, and the last remnants of Jewish statehood were destroyed. The Jews were finally expelled from Palestine and settled throughout the Mediterranean. The synagogue becomes the basis of Jewish life. The Talmud is compiled, containing religious, legal, and social regulations. The Talmud becomes the basis of the entire life of Jewish communities - not only religious, but also legal and social. Due to the absence of state and secular power main role played by community leaders - talmid-hacham, and later rabbis. They were turned to in all cases of life, hence the appearance in Judaism of petty religious prescriptions, the preservation of isolation and isolation of Jews. The rabbis were categorical judges in both the religious and secular affairs of the Jews, who united around the synagogues (synagogue community organization - kagal).

During the Talmudic period, two trends emerged in the development of Judaism - conservative and modernizing. The emergence of new sects was associated with them in the Middle Ages. Yes, sect Karaites rejected the Talmud and demanded a return to the pure teachings of Moses. Attempts at a rational interpretation of Judaism arose under the influence of Islam. So, Moses Maimonides(1135-1204), relying on the teachings of Aristotle and the Muslim rationalists of the Mu'tazilites, tried to interpret the Bible rationally or allegorically. He put forward 13 basic principles of Judaism, trying to free it from petty concerns.

The mystical teaching became widespread - Kabbalah (Heb. Acceptance or tradition). Main essay Zohar(shine) appeared in the 13th century. The basis of this doctrine is pantheism: God is an infinite, indefinite being, devoid of any attributes. One can approach God only through the mysterious meaning of names, the letters that make up the names, and the numbers that make up the letters. In this regard, in the practice of Kabbalah, a large place is occupied by the combination of numbers and magical formulas. Supporters of this teaching believe that there is no evil in the world, and evil is the outer shell of good, that is, God. Kabbalists believed in the transmigration of souls: the soul of a sinner is reborn in another body, human or animal, and this continues until the soul is cleansed of sins. After purification, the soul ascends and passes into the realm of pure spirits. Kabbalists cast out unclean spirits from the sick.

In modern times, another trend is spreading - Hasidism (Hasid - pious). Founder Israel Besht. He taught that ritual rules and regulations of rabbis are not needed, but one must strive for direct communication with God, which can be achieved in ecstasy of prayer. Only the righteous can achieve such communication - tzaddikim- keepers of divine secrets.

There is also a rationalist movement aimed at weakening religious legislation - Haskalah. One of the widespread trends in the twentieth century. became Zionism - political Judaism aimed at restoring the Jewish state in Palestine (founder Theodor Herzl).

3. The creed of Judaism.

In modern Judaism there is no single and generally recognized institution or person with the authority of a source of law, teaching or power. The sources of faith are the Tanakh ("Old Testament") and the Talmud ("Oral Torah"). The main features of the faith are called the 13 principles of faith. They begin with the phrase “I believe with complete faith.” The main ones are as follows:

• Monotheism, deepened by the doctrine of the creation of man by God in his own image and likeness - the consequence of which is God’s love for man, God’s desire to help man and confidence in the final victory of Good.
• The concept of life as a Dialogue between God and Man, conducted both at the level of the individual and at the level of the people and at the level of “all humanity as a single whole.”
• The absolute value of Man, human life (both individual and nations and also all humanity as a whole) - as an immortal spiritual being created by God in His image and likeness, the doctrine of the ideal purpose of man, which consists in endless all-round spiritual improvement.
• The doctrine of a special Mission (that is, Chosenness), which is to convey these Divine truths to humanity and through this help humanity to get closer to God. To accomplish this task, God made a Covenant with the Jewish people and gave them commandments. The Divine Covenant is irrevocable; and it imposes a higher level of responsibility on the Jewish people.
• The doctrine of the resurrection of the dead at the end of days (eschatology), that is, the belief that at a certain time the dead will be raised to life in the flesh and will live again on earth.
• The doctrine of the complete dominance of the spiritual principle over matter.

Most Jews are within traditional Judaism and under the influence of Talmudic rabbis. The Talmud contains the smallest instructions and prohibitions concerning all aspects of the daily life of a Jewish believer (613 in total). The interpreters of these instructions are the rabbis. Moreover, they are not clergy, do not hold public positions, but are private individuals who enjoy enormous authority as scientists and experts in scripture.

Brotherhoods play an important role in the life of Jews ( hevros), which are mutual aid societies in different cases life.

The entire life of a believing Jew is subject to prohibitions and regulations regarding food, clothing, prayers, holidays, etc. And every step of the believer is accompanied by prayer. There are numerous food prohibitions, for example, meat is divided into kosher and clubs, which is why there are cutting specialists. Men's clothing should be long, made of a uniform fabric, pockets below the waist, and the head should always be covered, even while sleeping. A beard is required long hair on the temples there are sidelocks. There are numerous restrictions for women, for example, ablutions must be performed in a pool with stagnant water.

The Sabbath is especially observed: you cannot engage in any activity, even light a fire or touch money. There are several annual holidays: Pesach, Shebbuot (after 50 days), Sukkot, Purim, Kippur (day of forgiveness), etc.

The humiliated position of women is also characteristic. She cannot be a witness in court, go outside without a covering, etc. Every Jewish believer says a daily prayer in which he thanks God for not creating him as a woman, and the woman for the fact that God created her to obey a man.

Judaism is characterized by religious education and training - from the age of 5-6 in synagogue schools.

In its long history, only two non-Jewish states proclaimed Judaism as their religion for a short time - the Himyarite kingdom in South Arabia in the 6th century. and the Khazar Khaganate - in the 8th century.

In Israel, Judaism is still the state religion today. Talmudic principles are widely used in legislation, court and other areas of life. Religion in Israel is an integral part of state policy; it is not separated from the state and plays important role in the spheres of public and personal life - from the birth of a person to his funeral.

Actually, religious people make up about 30% of the country's Jewish population. In Israel, only the Orthodox branch of Judaism is recognized and the Reform and Conservative trends common in the United States are not recognized.

The Ultra-Orthodox (and there are also many movements within them) live in compact groups, the largest of which are the Mea Shearim neighborhood in Jerusalem and the city of Bnei Brak near Tel Aviv. They are easily distinguished by their black hats, black suit and sidelocks. They buy food only in special, especially kosher stores, and will never dine in a house that they are not sure is kosher. They are not snobs - they have been brought up this way from generation to generation. Their children are brought up in strictness, walk decorously, and study in special schools. Boys separately, girls separately. On buses, men are in the front, women are in the back. In the synagogue: men in the hall, women in the gallery behind the curtains. At a celebration in a restaurant: men in one room, women in another. The use of birth control is prohibited, abortion is prohibited, and families have many children. Most of them do not have televisions. The ultra-Orthodox go to the beach, but they have a separate one and there are men's and women's days. Many ultra-Orthodox people choose not to serve in the army. To do this, they announce that they are going to study at a yeshiva (religious higher school) and devote themselves to God. Such a student has no right to work. They receive a small allowance from the state for living and family support. And the community helps. And children pass on clothes from the elders to the younger ones. Politically they are amorphous. “As the rabbi says, we will vote.” Basically, their religious authorities support the right bloc.

Representatives of the national-religious camp are very different from them. They are dressed in regular clothes civilian clothes, they can be distinguished by their knitted kippah. They believe in God the same way as the ultra-Orthodox, follow the same traditions, but they have televisions and serve in the army in combat units. They are zealous supporters of Zionism and do everything in their power to strengthen the Zionist character of the state. They form the backbone of the settlement movement. They vote for right-wing parties.

About 50% of the country's Jewish population, who are not believers, observe some traditions to one degree or another: they do not eat pork, they fast, etc. They have nothing against religious rules and tolerate some restrictions caused by religious laws: buses do not run on Saturday, shops and most places of entertainment are closed.

About 20% of the Jewish population, being ardent atheists, protest against religious domination, demand to separate religion from the state, stop funding religious organizations and draft them all into the army.

The current status quo in Israel between religious and atheist is quite stable and is unlikely to undergo significant changes in the near future.

Further reading

Judaism is a religious system that arose in Palestine at the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. This is one of the most ancient religions, preserved with minor changes until the present day. Judaism is the first monotheistic religion in the history of mankind, which played an extremely large role in the general history of religion, forming a very significant layer in the system of doctrine of Christianity and Islam - the two largest modern world religions. The name “Judaism” comes from the name of one of the Jewish tribes of antiquity – the tribe of Judah.

The history of ancient Judaism went through basically the same stages of development as the history of other primitive communal cults. The first reliable information about Jews dates back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. At that time, Jews belonging to the general Semitic group of peoples lived in the Arabian Desert and on the Sinai Peninsula. Their main occupation was nomadic cattle breeding.

The basis of the organization of society was a clan led by an elder-patriarch, who enjoyed unquestioned authority and unlimited power. The ancient Hebrew tribes did not yet know social division and private property. The connection between members of the clan was very strong; it was based on common property, joint management of the clan household, participation in wars, etc. The low level of economic development during this period made Jews more dependent on the elemental forces of nature, which gave rise to ideas about nature, supposedly inhabited by good and evil spirits. Therefore, their beliefs were almost no different from the beliefs of other peoples and tribes who were at the stage of tribal society.

The ancient Jews worshiped the spirits of their ancestors and spirits that personified the forces of nature. They believed that evil spirits they destroy livestock, bring in hot desert winds, and fill wells with sand. Helpless before the forces of nature, they hoped to propitiate and fence themselves off from evil spirits with spells and sacrifices.

In the Bible (in the book of Genesis) there is an indication that the ancient Jews worshiped trees, groves, stones, mountains, animals, revered the moon, and cast spells in its honor. Even the earliest image of the supreme god Yahweh was made in the form of a lion or bull (“golden calf”).

The religion of the ancient Jewish nomads acquired a different character after their conquest of Palestine in the 13th-12th centuries. BC, which was inhabited by the Canaanite tribe. By the time the nomadic Jewish tribes arrived in Palestine, there already existed cities with a fairly large settled population engaged primarily in agriculture and viticulture. Over time, the nomadic Jews, following the example of the Canaanites, also began to engage in agriculture and switched to a sedentary lifestyle. During this process, the social stratification of the tribal society gradually occurred. Reverence for the forces of nature is gradually transferred to the Vaals, i.e. idols - patrons of fields, olive groves, as well as the power of leaders and elders. The supreme god of the Jews, Yahweh, who was originally represented as the spirit of the desert, now, in connection with the transition to sedentary life, began to be revered as the god of agriculture, sending rain and punishing droughts.

The emergence of private ownership of land, livestock, and slaves led to the decomposition of clan society into rich farmers and slave owners, on the one hand, and poor people - free landless and slaves - on the other.

These important changes in the social life of the ancient Jews were reflected in religion. From the host of spirits and gods worshiped by the lowland Jewish tribes and clans, the god Yahweh stood out, who was considered the patron of the most powerful and numerous tribe of Judah. This tribe subsequently played an important role in the unification of the ancient Hebrew tribes, and the god of this tribe, Yahweh, became the god and patron of the entire Jewish people and the future Israeli state. From that time on, ideas about Yahweh began to spread as the omnipotent creator of the Universe, the king of all other gods: “For the Lord is a great God and a great king over all gods,” “high above all nations...” - the Bible notes. At the same time, the idea of ​​God's chosenness of the Jewish people arose, to whom, supposedly, God gave the “promised land” - Palestine with a number of adjacent territories where “rivers of honey and milk flow.” “You chose us from all nations, you loved us, you were kind to us, you sanctified us with your commandments.” This prayer to the god Yahweh, composed of biblical verses, expresses the Jewish dogma about the “chosenness of God” of the Jewish people. It should be noted that this idea was neither original nor exclusively Jewish. In ancient times, it was widespread among the peoples of the Ancient East. The idea that Yahweh “chose” the Israeli people, calling them “his son,” “firstborn,” is a reflection of the historical process of the emergence of monotheism and the idea of ​​a single god - the god Yahweh, as the most “reliable” of all elohim (gods).

During the formation of a socially heterogeneous society around 1000 BC. The state of Israel was formed, led by King Saul.

Now, with the formation of the state, the propertied layers needed an apparatus of religious propaganda. This is how a whole caste of Jewish professional priests arose, headed by a high priest; during the same period, King Solomon built the famous Temple of Jerusalem. The Jewish religion likens the god Yahweh to an earthly king.

In the 1st century AD The ancient Jewish state was conquered by the Romans, who destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem. Having lost their historical homeland and religious center, thousands of Jews left Palestine and settled in other countries (diaspora). Diaspora Jews organized themselves into religious communities - synagogues (Greek - assembly), which performed not only religious functions, but also secular ones. The community was headed by rabbis (from the Hebrew rabbi - teacher). The clergy strictly regulated the life of believers, referring to the holy books of Judaism.

Federal Agency for Education

Russian state university them. I. Kant

Faculty of History

TEST

ON THE COURSE “HISTORY OF RELIGIONS”

JUDAISM: ORIGIN AND FEATURES

Second year students

OSP "Culturology"

Part-time study

Kataeva T. O.

Kaliningrad

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………3

ORIGIN AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT………………………………….4

The era of the First Temple…………………………………………………........5

Pentateuch (Torah)……………………………………………………….7

Second Temple era………………………………………………………9

FEATURES OF THE TEACHING. THE IDEA OF ONE GOD………………………11

HOLIDAYS FASTS………………………………………………………12

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………14

REFERENCES………………………………………………………15

INTRODUCTION

Judaism (from other Hebrew yahudut - residents ancient Judea), the earliest monotheistic religion that arose in the 1st millennium BC. e. in Palestine. A characteristic feature of Judaism, which distinguishes it from the national religions of other peoples, is monotheism - the belief in One God. On the basis of Judaism, two world religions arose: Christianity and Islam. The Jewish religion is one of the most vibrant cultural traditions. Adherents of Judaism believe in Yahweh (the one God, creator and ruler of the Universe), the immortality of the soul, the afterlife, the coming coming of the Messiah, God's chosenness of the Jewish people (the idea of ​​a “covenant”, a union, an agreement between the people and God, in which the people act as the bearer of divine revelation) .

Judaism is not just the religion of the Jewish people, but a set of laws that regulates not only the religious, ethical and ideological, but also almost all aspects of the life of adherents of this teaching. Judaism defines 613 mitzvot (248 commandments and 365 prohibitions. Among mitzvot the so-called Ten Commandments, containing universal ethical standards human behavior: monotheism, prohibition on the image of God, on pronouncing His name in vain (in vain), observing the sanctity of the day of rest on the seventh day (Saturday), honoring parents, prohibition of murder, adultery, theft, false witness and selfish lust. Deviation from fulfilling the commandments, as a consequence of the principle of free will, is considered a sin that entails retribution not only in the other world, but also in earthly life. Also, of all rules, there are seven, mandatory for all people: the prohibition of blasphemy, the prohibition of bloodshed, the prohibition of theft, the prohibition of debauchery, the prohibition of cruelty towards animals, the commandment of justice in court and the equality of man before the law. The canon of the sacred books of Judaism includes the Torah (“Pentateuch of Moses”), the books of the prophets, etc. Various interpretations and commentaries on the canon are collected in the Talmud. Mystical teachings (kabala, Hasidism) became widespread in Judaism.

Starting to form as a religion, Judaism began to develop as a religion not associated with any territory. Characteristic feature Judaism is closed based on nationality. One state means one religion; people who refused and did not enter this system were considered as some kind of danger.

Judaism is classified as a family of "monotheistic" religions, just like Christianity and Islam. All three religions have much in common, both in terms of geography of origin and theological system. The Hebrew Bible has become the most influential book in human history: Jews and Christians rank it among their most important religious texts. It also has much in common with the Koran. Some of its central ideas are about the existence of One God, one universal moral code, that people should care for the poor, widows, orphans and travelers, that Jews are God's chosen people.

ORIGIN AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The ideas of the ancient Jews about the One God developed over a long historical period (19th - 2nd centuries BC), which was called biblical and included the era patriarchs(forefathers) of the Jewish people. As legend tells, the very first Jew was the patriarch Abraham, who entered into a sacred union with God - a “covenant”. Abraham made a promise that he and his descendants would remain faithful to God and fulfill the commandments as proof of this ( mitzvot). For this, God promised Abraham to protect and multiply his descendants, from which a whole nation would emerge. This people will receive from God the possession of Israel - the land on which they will create their own state. The descendants of Abraham formed a union of 12 tribes (tribal groups), related by blood, which descended from the 12 sons of Jacob (Israel).

But before receiving the land promised by God (“the promised land”), the descendants of Abraham ended up in Egypt (about 1700 BC), where they were enslaved for 400 years. The prophet Moses brought them out of this slavery ( Moshe). This was followed by a 40-year wandering in the desert, during which all former slaves had to die so that only free people would enter the land of Israel. During this wandering through the desert, the central event of Judaism and its entire history occurs: God calls Moses to Mount Sinai and through him gives the entire Jewish people the Ten Commandments and the Torah . This marks the beginning of the existence of Jews as a single people, and Judaism - the religion that this people professes. The God of the Jews, called by the name Yahweh (“He who is”, from whose existence everything flows), had neither images nor temples.

In the 13th century BC BC, when the Israelite tribes came to Palestine, their religion was a variety of primitive cults, common to nomads. Only gradually did the Israelite religion emerge - Judaism, as it is presented in the Old Testament. In early cults, trees, springs, stars, stones, and animals were deified.

Traces of totemism are easy to see in the Bible when it comes to various animals, but above all - about snake and about bull. There were cults of the dead and ancestors. Yahweh was originally a deity of the southern tribes. This ancient Semitic deity was imagined with wings, flying between the clouds and appearing in thunderstorms, lightning, whirlwinds, and fire. Yahweh became the patron of the tribal alliance created for the conquest of Palestine, revered by all twelve tribes and symbolizing the power that binds them. The former gods were partially rejected, partially merged in the image of Yahweh (Jehovah is a later liturgical rendering of this name). The substantive side of the religious ideas of the era of the patriarchs can be restored only in the most general terms. The religion of the patriarchs is based on the idea that the head of the clan has the right to choose any name he likes for the god of his fathers, with whom he establishes a special personal connection, a kind of alliance or covenant.

First Temple era

In the 11th century BC e. Jews create the state of Israel, the capital of which is the city of Jerusalem (Yerushalayim). In 958 BC. e. King Solomon builds a Temple in honor of the One God in Jerusalem on Mount Zion. A new beginning has begun in the history of Judaism, temple period, which lasted about 1500 years. During this period, the Jerusalem Temple became the main spiritual center of Judaism. The servants of the Jerusalem Temple constituted a special category of Jewish society. Their descendants still perform special ritual functions and observe additional prohibitions: marrying a widow or divorcee, etc.

During the same period, writing is completed Tanakh- The Holy Scriptures of Judaism (the Christian tradition completely included the Tanakh in the section of the Bible called the Old Testament). The king not only controlled the functioning of the Temple, but also made decisions on issues of a purely cultic nature. The possibility of intervention in the sphere of worship was rooted in the idea of ​​the king being chosen by God, which turned him into a sacred person. The rise of the Jerusalem Temple and its transformation into an official sanctuary undermined the prestige of local sanctuaries and contributed to the centralization of religious authority.

In 587 BC. e. Israel was captured by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, who destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem and forcibly resettled most of the Jews to Babylonia. The prophet Ezekiel becomes the spiritual leader and mentor of the settlers. He developed the idea of ​​​​the revival of Israel, but as a theocratic state, the center of which would be the new Jerusalem Temple.

What is new in religious history, characteristic of Judaism, its distinctive feature is the understanding of the relationship between God and his “chosen people” Israel as a relationship of “alliance.” The union is a kind of agreement: the people of Israel enjoy the special protection of almighty God, they are the “chosen people”, provided that they remain faithful, that they follow the commandments of God and, most importantly, do not deviate from monotheism. The peculiarity of Judaism is that God acts in the history of his people. A kind of constitution of this allied relationship between Israel and its god is the Law, in which Yahweh expressed his will. Along with the revelation of God in nature and history, the Law stands above all, in which the will of the Lord is clearly and clearly formulated in the form of “commandments.” Faith in the Messiah in the predictions of the prophets becomes the basis of Judaism: the Messiah will establish a kingdom where there will be no hostility and suffering, where the faithful God will find peace and happiness, and sins will be punished, the Last Judgment will be carried out. Judaism as a “religion of the law” was faced with a tendency that manifested itself in the fact that the Law was turning into something self-sufficient, so that even Yahweh retreated into the shadows. The law, as it were, became isolated from man, turned into something with its own logic of development, so that its requirements turned into a confusing set of contradictory instructions; serving God became tantamount to fulfilling the letter of the Law, not spiritualized by the participation of the “heart.” Religion was thus reduced in Israel to purely external worship, which was based on the confidence in receiving a “fair” reward from God for performing rituals and following prescribed norms of behavior.

Judaism in general terms is familiar to every person who has read the Old Testament. You don't have the time or desire to study the Bible, but want to know what religion the Jewish people follow? This article outlines the basic ideas of Judaism - briefly, without unnecessary facts and excessive terminology. After reading the material, you will learn about the founder of the religion, its symbolism and fundamental ideas.

Who founded Judaism

It is generally accepted that the founder of Judaism is Moses (“he who was rescued from the water”). The prophet of Judaism managed to unite the scattered tribes of Israel into a single people. He is also famous for carrying out the exodus of Jews from Egypt, where they lived as slaves.

During the time of Moses, the people of Israel increased in numbers so much that the ruler of Egypt gave the order to kill all newborn Hebrew boys. The mother of the future prophet saved the baby from death. She placed the child in a wicker basket and entrusted it to the waters of the Nile. Pharaoh's daughter discovered this basket and wanted to adopt the sleeping baby.

Moses grew up and noticed how his fellow tribesmen were oppressed in every possible way. One day, in a fit of anger, he killed an Egyptian overseer, and then fled the country to the land of Midian (a semi-nomadic city mentioned in the Koran and the Bible). Here he was called by God, who appeared to Moses in the form of a bush engulfed in flames, but not burning. God revealed his mission to Moses.

Articles of Faith

To summarize the basic ideas of Judaism briefly: you will get the following list:

1. Man was created by God, in the image and likeness of his Creator
2. God is the source of Love, Grace and Supreme Justice, he has absolute Reason and Omnipotence
3. Life is a dialogue between the Lord and an individual (or an entire people)
4. Man is an immortal spiritual being, capable of endless development and
5. People, regardless of race, are equal before the Lord, everyone is given free will
6. The Jewish people have a special mission - to convey Divine truths to the rest of humanity
7. Gentiles are only required to observe the seven laws of the sons of Noah, while Jews are required to fulfill the 613 mitzvot.
8. The spiritual principle dominates over matter, but the material world must also be treated with respect
9. After the coming of the Messiah (Mashiach), a new kingdom and peace will come throughout the entire earth
10. At the end of days the dead will rise again and live again on earth in the flesh

IN summary It is impossible to cover all the principles of Judaism, but the main ideas of this monotheistic religion should become clear to you.

Main symbols

Star of David. This is an ancient symbol, depicted as a hexagram - a six-pointed star. It is believed that it symbolizes the shape of the shields used in the wars of King David. The hexagram sign is traditionally considered a Jewish symbol, but it is also known in India as the designation of the Anahata chakra.

Menorah. Gold candlestick for seven candles. According to legend, during the wanderings of the Jews in the desert, such an object was in the Tabernacle of Meeting, then it was transferred to the Jerusalem Temple. It is believed that Moses received the order to make such a candlestick during a conversation with the Lord on Mount Sinai.

Yarmulke or kippah. This is the traditional headdress for a pious Jewish man. The yarmulke can be worn under a hat or as a separate headdress. In some cases, the cap is attached to the hair using a hairpin. Jewish women who practice Orthodox Judaism are also required to cover their heads. But women do not use a kippah for this, but a wig or scarf.