Emperor Justinian. Mosaic in Ravenna. VI century
The future emperor of Byzantium was born around 482 in the small Macedonian village of Taurisium into the family of a poor peasant. He came to Constantinople as a teenager at the invitation of his uncle Justin, an influential courtier. Justin did not have his own children, and he patronized his nephew: he called him to the capital and, despite the fact that he himself remained illiterate, gave him a good education, and then found a position at court. In 518 The senate, guard and residents of Constantinople proclaimed the elderly Justin emperor, and he soon made his nephew his co-ruler. Justinian was distinguished by a clear mind, a broad political outlook, determination, perseverance and exceptional efficiency. These qualities made him the de facto ruler of the empire. His young, beautiful wife Theodora also played a huge role. Her life took an unusual turn: the daughter of a poor circus performer and a circus performer herself, she, as a 20-year-old girl, went to Alexandria, where she came under the influence of mystics and monks and was transformed, becoming sincerely religious and pious. Beautiful and charming, Theodora had an iron will and turned out to be an indispensable friend to the emperor in difficult times. Justinian and Theodora were a worthy couple, although evil tongues were haunted by their union for a long time.
In 527, after the death of his uncle, 45-year-old Justinian became autocrat - autocrat - of the Roman Empire, as the Byzantine Empire was then called.
He gained power at a difficult time: only the eastern part of the former Roman possessions remained, and barbarian kingdoms were formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire: the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Franks in Gaul and the Vandals in Africa. The Christian Church was torn by disputes about whether Christ was a “God-man”; dependent peasants (colons) fled and did not cultivate the land, the arbitrariness of the nobility ruined the common people, the cities were shaken by riots, the finances of the empire were in decline. The situation could only be saved by decisive and selfless measures, and Justinian, alien to luxury and pleasure, a sincerely believing Orthodox Christian, theologian and politician, was perfectly suited for this role.
Several stages clearly stand out in the reign of Justinian I. The beginning of the reign (527-532) was a period of widespread charity, distribution of funds to the poor, tax reduction, and assistance to cities affected by the earthquake. At this time, the position of the Christian Church in the fight against other religions strengthened: the last stronghold of paganism, the Platonic Academy, was closed in Athens; limited opportunities for openly practicing the cults of other believers - Jews, Samaritans, etc. This was a period of wars with the neighboring Iranian Sassanid power for influence in South Arabia, the goal of which was to gain a foothold in the ports of the Indian Ocean and thereby undermine Iran's monopoly on the silk trade with China. It was a time of struggle against the tyranny and abuses of the nobility.
The main event of this stage is legal reform. In 528, Justinian established a commission of experienced jurists and statesmen. The main role in it was played by the legal specialist Trebonian. The commission prepared a collection of imperial decrees - the Justinian Code, a set of works by Roman jurists - the Digests, as well as a guide to the study of law - the Institutions. Carrying out legislative reform, we proceeded from the need to combine the norms of classical Roman law with the spiritual values of Christianity. This was expressed primarily in the creation of a unified system of imperial citizenship and the proclamation of the equality of citizens before the law. Moreover, under Justinian, the laws related to private property inherited from Ancient Rome took their final form. In addition, Justinian's laws no longer considered the slave as a thing - a “speaking instrument”, but as a person. Although slavery was not abolished, many opportunities opened up for a slave to free himself: if he became a bishop, entered a monastery, became a soldier; It was forbidden to kill a slave, and the murder of someone else's slave entailed cruel execution. In addition, according to the new laws, the rights of women in the family were equal to the rights of men. Justinian's laws prohibited divorce, which was condemned by the Church. At the same time, the era could not help but leave its mark on the law. Executions were frequent: for commoners - crucifixion, burning, devouring to wild animals, beating with rods to death, quartering; nobles were beheaded. Insulting the emperor, even damaging his sculptures, was punishable by death.
The emperor's reforms were interrupted by the Nika popular uprising in Constantinople (532). It all started with a conflict between two parties of fans in the circus: the Veneti (“blue”) and the Prasin (“green”). These were not only sports, but partly also socio-political unions. Political grievances were added to the traditional struggle of fans: the Prasins believed that the government was oppressing them and patronizing the Veneti. In addition, the lower classes were dissatisfied with the abuses of Justinian’s “Minister of Finance,” John of Cappadocia, while the nobility hoped to get rid of the upstart emperor. The Prasin leaders presented their demands to the emperor, and in a very harsh form, and when he rejected them, they called him a murderer and left the circus. Thus, an unheard-of insult was inflicted on the autocrat. The situation was complicated by the fact that when, on the same day, the instigators of the clash from both parties were arrested and sentenced to death, two of the convicts fell from the gallows (“were pardoned by God”), but the authorities refused to release them.
Then a single “green-blue” party was created with the slogan “Nika!” (circus cry “Win!”). An open riot began in the city, and arson was committed. The emperor agreed to concessions, dismissing the ministers most hated by the people, but this did not bring peace. An important role was also played by the fact that the nobility distributed gifts and weapons to the rebellious plebs, inciting rebellion. Neither attempts to suppress the uprising by force with the help of a detachment of barbarians, nor the public repentance of the emperor with the Gospel in his hands yielded anything. The rebels now demanded his abdication and proclaimed the noble senator Hypatius emperor. Meanwhile, the fires became more and more numerous. “The city was a pile of blackening ruins,” wrote a contemporary. Justinian was ready to abdicate, but at that moment Empress Theodora declared that she preferred death to flight and that “the emperor’s purple is an excellent shroud.” Her determination played a big role, and Justinian decided to fight. Troops loyal to the government made a desperate attempt to regain control over the capital: a detachment of the commander Belisarius, the conqueror of the Persians, entered the circus, where a stormy meeting of the rebels was taking place, and carried out a brutal massacre there. They said that 35 thousand people died, but Justinian’s throne survived.
The terrible catastrophe that befell Constantinople - fires and deaths - did not, however, plunge either Justinian or the townspeople into despondency. In the same year, rapid construction began using treasury funds. The pathos of restoration captured wide sections of the townspeople. In a sense, we can say that the city rose from the ashes, like the fabulous Phoenix bird, and became even more beautiful. The symbol of this rise was, of course, the construction of a miracle of miracles - the Constantinople Church of Hagia Sophia. It began immediately, in 532, under the leadership of architects from the province - Anthemia of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus. Externally, the building had little to amaze the viewer, but the real miracle of transformation took place inside, when the believer found himself under a huge mosaic dome, which seemed to hang in the air without any support. A dome with a cross hovered above the worshipers, symbolizing the divine cover over the empire and its capital. Justinian had no doubt that his power had divine sanction. On holidays, he sat on the left side of the throne, and the right side was empty - Christ was invisibly present on it. The autocrat dreamed that an invisible cover would be raised over the entire Roman Mediterranean. With the idea of restoring the Christian empire - the "Roman house" - Justinian inspired the entire society.
When the dome of Constantinople Sophia was still being built, the second stage of Justinian’s reign (532-540) began with the Great Liberation Campaign to the West.
By the end of the first third of the 6th century. The barbarian kingdoms that arose in the western part of the Roman Empire were experiencing a deep crisis. They were torn apart by religious strife: the main population professed Orthodoxy, but the barbarians, Goths and Vandals were Arians, whose teaching was declared a heresy, condemned in the 4th century. at the I and II Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church. Within the barbarian tribes themselves, social stratification was occurring at a rapid pace, discord between the nobility and the common people was intensifying, which undermined the combat effectiveness of the armies. The elite of the kingdoms were busy with intrigues and conspiracies and did not care about the interests of their states. The indigenous population waited for the Byzantines as liberators. The reason for the start of the war in Africa was that the Vandal nobility overthrew the legitimate king - a friend of the empire - and placed his relative Gelizmer on the throne. In 533, Justinian sent a 16,000-strong army under the command of Belisarius to the African shores. The Byzantines managed to secretly land and freely occupy the capital of the Vandal kingdom of Carthage. The Orthodox clergy and Roman nobility solemnly greeted the imperial troops. The common people also reacted sympathetically to their appearance, since Belisarius severely punished robberies and looting. King Gelizmer tried to organize resistance, but lost the decisive battle. The Byzantines were helped by an accident: at the beginning of the battle, the king’s brother died, and Gelizmer left the troops to bury him. The Vandals decided that the king had fled, and panic gripped the army. All of Africa fell into the hands of Belisarius. Under Justinian I, grandiose construction began here - 150 new cities were built, close trade contacts with the Eastern Mediterranean were restored. The province experienced economic growth throughout the 100 years it was part of the empire.
Following the annexation of Africa, a war began for the possession of the historical core of the western part of the empire - Italy. The reason for the outbreak of the war was the overthrow and murder of the legitimate queen of the Ostrogoths, Amalasunta, by her husband Theodatus. In the summer of 535, Belisarius with a detachment of eight thousand landed on Sicily and in a short time, experiencing almost no resistance, occupied the island. The next year, his army crossed to the Apennine Peninsula and, despite the enemy’s huge numerical superiority, recaptured its southern and central parts. The Italians greeted Belisarius everywhere with flowers; only Naples offered resistance. The Christian Church played a huge role in such support of the people. In addition, confusion reigned in the Ostrogoth camp: the murder of the cowardly and treacherous Theodat, a riot in the troops. The army chose Viti-gis, a brave soldier but a weak politician, as the new king. He, too, was unable to stop the advance of Belisarius, and in December 536 the Byzantine army occupied Rome without a fight. The clergy and townspeople arranged a solemn meeting for the Byzantine soldiers. The population of Italy no longer wanted the power of the Ostrogoths, as evidenced by the following fact. When in the spring of 537 Belisarius's five-thousandth detachment was besieged in Rome by the huge army of Witigis, the battle for Rome lasted 14 months; Despite hunger and disease, the Romans remained loyal to the empire and did not allow Witigis into the city. It is also significant that the king of the Ostrogoths himself printed coins with the portrait of Justinian I - only the power of the emperor was considered legal. In the deep autumn of 539, the army of Belisarius besieged the capital of the barbarians, Ravenna, and a few months later, relying on the support of friends, the imperial troops occupied it without a fight.
It seemed that Justinian's power knew no bounds, he was at the apogee of his power, plans for the restoration of the Roman Empire were coming true. However, the main tests were still awaiting his power. The thirteenth year of the reign of Justinian I was a “black year” and began a period of difficulties that only the faith, courage and steadfastness of the Romans and their emperor could overcome. This was the third stage of his reign (540-558).
Even when Belisarius was negotiating the surrender of Ravenna, the Persians violated the “Eternal Peace” they had signed ten years ago with the empire. Shah Khosrow I invaded Syria with a huge army and besieged the capital of the province - the richest city of Antioch. The residents bravely defended themselves, but the garrison was unable to fight and fled. The Persians took Antioch, plundered the flourishing city and sold the inhabitants into slavery. The next year, the troops of Khosrow I invaded Lazika (Western Georgia), allied with the empire, and a protracted Byzantine-Persian war began. The thunderstorm from the East coincided with the Slavic invasion of the Danube. Taking advantage of the fact that the border fortifications were left almost without garrisons (there were troops in Italy and in the East), the Slavs reached the capital itself, broke through the Long Walls (three walls stretching from the Black Sea to Marmara, protecting the outskirts of the city) and began to plunder the suburbs of Constantinople. Belisarius was urgently transferred to the East, and he managed to stop the Persian invasion, but while his army was not in Italy, the Ostrogoths revived there. They chose the young, handsome, brave and intelligent Totila as king and, under his leadership, began a new war. The barbarians enlisted fugitive slaves and colonists into the army, distributed lands of the Church and the nobility to their supporters, and recruited those who had been offended by the Byzantines. Very quickly, Totila's small army occupied almost all of Italy; Only the ports remained under the control of the empire, which could not be taken without a fleet.
But, probably, the most difficult test for the power of Justinian I was the terrible plague epidemic (541-543), which killed almost half the population. It seemed that the invisible dome of Sophia over the empire had cracked and black whirlwinds of death and destruction poured into it.
Justinian understood well that his main strength in the face of a superior enemy was the faith and unity of his subjects. Therefore, simultaneously with the ongoing war with the Persians in Lazica, the difficult struggle with Totila, who created his fleet and captured Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, the emperor’s attention was increasingly occupied by issues of theology. It seemed to some that the elderly Justinian had lost his mind, spending days and nights in such a critical situation reading the Holy Scriptures, studying the works of the Church Fathers (the traditional name for the figures of the Christian Church who created its dogma and organization) and writing his own theological treatises. However, the emperor understood well that it was in the Christian faith of the Romans that their strength lay. Then the famous idea of the “symphony of the Kingdom and Priesthood” was formulated - the union of church and state as a guarantee of peace - the Empire.
In 543, Justinian wrote a treatise condemning the teachings of the mystic, ascetic and theologian of the 3rd century. Origen, denying the eternal torment of sinners. However, the emperor paid the main attention to overcoming the schism between the Orthodox and Monophysites. This conflict has tormented the Church for more than 100 years. In 451, the IV Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon condemned the Monophysites. The theological dispute was complicated by the rivalry between the influential centers of Orthodoxy in the East - Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople. The split between supporters of the Council of Chalcedon and its opponents (Orthodox and Monophysites) during the reign of Justinian I became especially acute, since the Monophysites created their own separate church hierarchy. In 541, the activities of the famous Monophysite Jacob Baradei began, who, dressed as a beggar, went around all the countries inhabited by Monophysites and restored the Monophysite church in the East. The religious conflict was complicated by a national one: the Greeks and Romans, who considered themselves the ruling people in the Roman Empire, were predominantly Orthodox, and the Copts and many Arabs were Monophysites. For the empire, this was all the more dangerous because the richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - contributed huge sums to the treasury and much depended on the support of the government by the trade and craft circles of these regions. While Theodora was alive, she helped mitigate the conflict by patronizing the Monophysites, despite the complaints of the Orthodox clergy, but in 548 the empress died. Justinian decided to bring the issue of reconciliation with the Monophysites to the V Ecumenical Council. The emperor's plan was to smooth out the conflict by condemning the teachings of the enemies of the Monophysites - Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Willow of Edessa and Theodore of Mopsuet (the so-called "three chapters"). The difficulty was that they all died in peace with the Church. Is it possible to judge the dead? After much hesitation, Justinian decided that it was possible, but Pope Vigilius and the overwhelming majority of Western bishops did not agree with his decision. The Emperor took the Pope to Constantinople, kept him almost under house arrest, trying to achieve agreement under pressure. After a long struggle and hesitation, Vigilius surrendered. In 553, the V Ecumenical Council in Constantinople condemned the “three heads.” The pope did not participate in the work of the council, citing indisposition, and tried to oppose its decisions, but in the end he signed them.
In the history of this council, one should distinguish between its religious meaning, which consists in the triumph of the Orthodox dogma that divine and human nature are united in Christ, inseparably and inseparably, and the political intrigues that accompanied it. Justinian's direct goal was not achieved: reconciliation with the Monophysites did not occur, and there was almost a break with the Western bishops, dissatisfied with the decisions of the council. However, this council played a big role in the spiritual consolidation of the Orthodox Church, and this was extremely important both at that time and for subsequent eras. The reign of Justinian I was a period of religious upsurge. It was at this time that church poetry, written in simple language, began to develop, one of the most prominent representatives of which was Roman Sladkopevets. This was the heyday of Palestinian monasticism, the time of John Climacus and Isaac the Syrian.
There was also a turning point in political affairs. In 552, Justinian equipped a new army for a campaign in Italy. This time she set off by land through Dalmatia under the command of the eunuch Narses, a brave commander and cunning politician. In the decisive battle, Totila's cavalry attacked the troops of Narses, formed in a crescent, came under cross-fire from archers from the flanks, took to flight and crushed their own infantry. Totila was seriously wounded and died. Within a year, the Byzantine army restored its dominance over all of Italy, and a year later Narses stopped and destroyed the hordes of Lombards pouring into the peninsula.
Italy was saved from terrible plunder. In 554, Justinian continued his conquests in the Western Mediterranean, attempting to capture Spain. It was not possible to do this completely, but a small area in the southeast of the country and the Strait of Gibraltar came under the rule of Byzantium. The Mediterranean Sea once again became the "Roman Lake". In 555 Imperial troops defeated a huge Persian army at Lazika. Khosrow I first signed a truce for six years, and then peace. It was also possible to cope with the Slavic threat: Justinian I entered into an alliance with the nomadic Avars, who took upon themselves the protection of the Danube border of the empire and the fight against the Slavs. In 558 this treaty came into force. The long-awaited peace came for the Roman Empire.
The last years of the reign of Justinian I (559-565) passed quietly. The finances of the empire, weakened by a quarter-century of struggle and a terrible epidemic, were restored, the country healed its wounds. The 84-year-old emperor did not abandon his theological studies and hopes of ending the schism in the Church. He even wrote a treatise on the incorruptibility of the body of Christ, close in spirit to the Monophysites. For resisting the emperor's new views, the Patriarch of Constantinople and many bishops ended up in exile. Justinian I was simultaneously the continuer of the traditions of the early Christians and the heir of the pagan Caesars. On the one hand, he fought against the fact that only priests were active in the Church, and the laity remained only spectators, on the other hand, he constantly interfered in church affairs, removing bishops at his discretion. Justinian carried out reforms in the spirit of the Gospel commandments - he helped the poor, alleviated the situation of slaves and colonists, restored cities - and at the same time subjected the population to cruel tax oppression. He tried to restore the authority of the law, but was unable to eliminate the corruption and abuse of officials. His attempts to restore peace and stability in the territory of the Byzantine Empire turned into rivers of blood. And yet, in spite of everything, Justinian's empire was an oasis of civilization surrounded by pagan and barbarian states and captured the imagination of his contemporaries.
The significance of the great emperor's deeds goes far beyond his time. Strengthening the position of the Church, the ideological and spiritual consolidation of Orthodoxy played a huge role in the formation of medieval society. The Code of Emperor Justinian I became the basis of European law in subsequent centuries.
Page:
Justinian I (Latin Iustinianus I, Greek Ιουστινιανός A, known as Justinian the Great; 482 or 483, Tauresius (Upper Macedonia) - November 14, 565, Constantinople), emperor of Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) from 527 to 565. Under him, the famous codification of Roman law was carried out and Italy was conquered from the Ostrogoths.
His native language was Latin. Justinian was born into the family of a poor Illyrian peasant from Macedonia. Even in his childhood, his uncle-commander, having adopted Justinian and adding the name Justinian, which went down in history, to the boy’s real name Peter Savvaty, brought him to Constantinople and gave him a good education. Subsequently, his uncle became Emperor Justin I, making Justinian co-ruler, and after his death, Justinian inherited the throne in 527 and became the ruler of a huge empire. On the one hand, he was distinguished by his generosity, simplicity, and wisdom as a politician. the talent of a skilled diplomat, on the other - cruelty, deceit, duplicity. Justinian I was obsessed with the idea of the greatness of his imperial person.
Emancipation from slavery is a law of nations.
Justinian
Having become emperor, Justinian I immediately began to implement a general program of reviving the greatness of Rome in all aspects. Like Napoleon, he slept little, was extremely energetic and attentive to detail. He was greatly influenced by his wife Theodora, a former courtesan or hetaera, whose determination played a large role in suppressing the largest Constantinople uprising, the Nika, in 532. After her death, Justinian I became less decisive as the ruler of the state.
Justinian I was able to hold the eastern border with the Sassanid Empire, thanks to his military leaders Belisarius and Narses, he conquered North Africa from the Vandals and returned imperial power over the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. At the same time, it strengthens the government apparatus and improves taxation. These reforms were so unpopular that they led to the Nika rebellion, which nearly cost him his throne.
Using the talent of his minister Tribonian, in 528 Justinian ordered a complete revision of Roman law, aiming to make it as unsurpassed in formal legal terms as it had been three centuries earlier. The three main components of Roman law - the Digest, the Code of Justinian and the Institutes - were completed in 534. Justinian linked the welfare of the state with the welfare of the church and considered himself the bearer of the highest ecclesiastical authority, as well as secular. His policy is sometimes called “Caesaropapism” (dependence of the church on the state), although he himself did not see the difference between church and state. He legitimized church practices and orthodox doctrine, in particular the position of the Council of Chalcedon, according to which the human and the divine coexist in Christ, as opposed to the point of view of the Monophysites, who believed that Christ was an exclusively divine being, and the Nestorians, who argued that Christ had two different hypostases - human and divine. Having built the Temple of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople in 537, Justinian believed that he had surpassed Solomon.
Byzantium reached its greatest prosperity in the early period of its history under the emperor Justinians I (527-565), who was born into the family of a poor Macedonian peasant. In the life of Justinian, a large role was played by his maternal uncle Justin, a poorly educated peasant who went from a simple soldier to an emperor. Thanks to his uncle, Justinian came to Constantinople as a teenager, received a good education, and at the age of 45 became emperor.
Justinian was short, white-faced, and had a good-looking appearance. His character combined the most contradictory traits: directness and kindness bordered on treachery and deceit, generosity - with greed, determination - with fear. Justinian, for example, was indifferent to luxury, but spent considerable money on the reconstruction and decoration of Constantinople. The rich architecture of the capital and the splendor of the imperial receptions amazed the barbarian rulers and ambassadors. But when in the middle of the 6th century. An earthquake occurred, Justinian abolished festive dinners at court, and donated the saved money to help the victims.
From the beginning of his reign, Justinian cherished the dream of reviving the Roman Empire. He devoted all his activities to this. For his amazing performance, Justinian was nicknamed “the emperor who never sleeps.” His wife was his faithful assistant Theodora . She was born into a simple family and in her youth was a circus actress. The beauty of the girl struck Justinian, and he, despite many ill-wishers, married her. This woman of unyielding will actually became her husband’s co-ruler: she received foreign ambassadors and conducted diplomatic correspondence.
Justinian tried to increase the wealth of the country, and therefore actively promoted the development of crafts and trade. During his reign, the Byzantines established their own silk production, the sale of which brought considerable profits. The emperor also sought to strengthen the system of government. Any person, even of humble origin, but a real specialist, could receive a high government position.
In 528, Justinian formed a legal commission to process and organize all Roman law. Lawyers systematized the laws of the Roman emperors of the 2nd - early 6th centuries. (from Hadrian to Justinian). This collection was called the Justinian Code. It became the basis of a multi-volume collection, which in the 12th century. in Western Europe it was known as the “Code of Civil Manners.”
VI century From the work of Procopius of Caesarea “War with the Persians”
Emperor Justinian and his entourage consulted on what to do best: stay here, or escape on ships. A lot spoke in the interests of both the first and second ideas. And so Empress Theodora said: “Now, I think, is not the time to discuss whether it is worthy for a woman to show fortitude in front of men and speak out to the confused with youthful fervour. It seems to me that running away is an undignified act. The one who was born cannot help but be moderate,” but for the one who once ruled, it is shameful to be a fugitive. I don’t want to lose this scarlet robe and live to see the day when my subjects don’t call me their mistress! If you want to escape, Emperor, it is not difficult. We have a lot of money, and the sea is nearby, and there are ships. However, be careful that you, the saved one, do not then have to choose death over such salvation. I like the old saying that royal power is a beautiful shroud.” So said Empress Theodora. Her words inspired those gathered and... they again began to talk about how they needed to defend themselves...Material from the site
The beginning of 532 was critical for Justinian’s power, when a major uprising “Nika!” broke out in Constantinople. (Greek"Win!"). This was precisely the cry of the rebels. They burned the tax rolls, captured the prison and released the prisoners. Justinian was desperately preparing to escape from the capital. Theodora was able to convince her husband to take the necessary measures, and the uprising was suppressed.
Having lost the formidable internal danger, Justinian began to realize his cherished dream of restoring the empire in the West. He managed to recapture the former Roman possessions from the Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths, and the territory of Byzantium almost doubled.
Unbearable taxes to wage wars led the Byzantines to complete impoverishment, so after the death of Justinian the people breathed a sigh of relief. The population also suffered from the terrible plague epidemic of 541-542, popularly nicknamed “Justinian.” It carried away almost half the population of Byzantium. The power of the state achieved under Justinian was fragile, and the restoration of the borders of the Roman Empire turned out to be artificial.
Bagryanytsya - long outerwear made of expensive scarlet fabric, worn by monarchs.
Didn't find what you were looking for? Use the search
On this page there is material on the following topics:
- summary of Justinian
- report on the topic of Justinian summary
- essay on the topic of the era of Justinian I in the history of Byzantium
- report on the topic Justinian 1
- message about Justinian
Justinian I the Great, whose full name sounds like Justinian Flavius Peter Sabbatius, is a Byzantine emperor (i.e. the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire), one of the largest emperors of late antiquity, under which this era began to give way to the Middle Ages, and the Roman style of government gave way to the Byzantine . He remained in history as a major reformer.
Born around 483, he was a native of Macedonia, the son of a peasant. A decisive role in the biography of Justinian was played by his uncle, who became Emperor Justin I. The childless monarch, who loved his nephew, brought him closer to himself, contributed to his education and advancement in society. Researchers suggest that Justinian could have arrived in Rome at approximately 25 years of age, studied law and theology in the capital and began his ascent to the top of political Olympus with the rank of personal imperial bodyguard, head of the guard corps.
In 521, Justinian rose to the rank of consul and became a very popular personality, not least thanks to the organization of luxurious circus performances. The Senate repeatedly suggested that Justin make his nephew co-emperor, but the emperor took this step only in April 527, when his health deteriorated significantly. On August 1 of the same year, after the death of his uncle, Justinian became the sovereign ruler.
The newly-crowned emperor, harboring ambitious plans, immediately set about strengthening the power of the country. In domestic policy, this was manifested, in particular, in the implementation of legal reform. The 12 books of the Justinian Code and 50 of the Digest that were published remained relevant for more than a millennium. Justinian's laws contributed to centralization, expansion of the powers of the monarch, strengthening of the state apparatus and army, and strengthening of control in certain areas, in particular in trade.
The coming to power was marked by the onset of a period of large-scale construction. The Constantinople Church of St., which became a victim of fire. Sofia was rebuilt in such a way that among Christian churches for many centuries it had no equal.
Justinian I the Great pursued a fairly aggressive foreign policy aimed at conquering new territories. His military leaders (the emperor himself did not have the habit of personally participating in hostilities) managed to conquer part of North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and a significant part of the territory of the Western Roman Empire.
The reign of this emperor was marked by a number of riots, incl. the largest Nika uprising in Byzantine history: this is how the population reacted to the harshness of the measures taken. In 529, Justinian closed Plato's Academy, and in 542, the consular post was abolished. He was given more and more honors, likening him to a saint. Justinian himself, towards the end of his life, gradually lost interest in state concerns, giving preference to theology, dialogues with philosophers and clergy. He died in Constantinople in the fall of 565.
Participation in wars:
The defeat of the Vandal kingdom. Conquest of Italy. Wars with the Persian Sassanids.
Participation in battles:
Nick's Rebellion.
(Justinian I) One of the most prominent emperors of Byzantium, founder of the temple of St. Sophia and the main codifier of Roman law
Justinian was born in Tauresia into a peasant family and was most likely an Illyrian. At birth he was given a name Peter Savvaty, to which Justinian was later added (in honor of the emperor’s maternal uncle Justina I) and Flavius (a sign of belonging to the imperial family). Justinian was the favorite of Justin I, who had no children of his own. Having become a very influential figure and, little by little, rising through the ranks, he received the post of commander of the Constantinople military garrison. Justin soon adopted him, making him his co-ruler in the last few months of his reign. On August 1, 527, Emperor Justin died and Justinian ascended the throne. Justinian's reign can be viewed in several aspects: 1) internal affairs and private life; 2) wars; 3) codification of law; 4) religious politics.
Privacy. 
A notable event in Justinian's life was his marriage in 523 to the courtesan Theodora. He selflessly revered and loved Theodora until her death in 548, finding in her a co-ruler who supported him in governing the state. Once, during the Nika uprising on January 13-18, 532, Justinian and his comrades were already close to despair and hatched a plan to escape, but Theodora managed to save her husband’s royal throne.
By the time Justinian ascended the throne, the eternal enmity with Persian Sassanids, which resulted in 527 in a war for dominion over the Caucasus region. Justinian's military commander the great Belisarius won a brilliant victory at Dara in Mesopotamia in 530, but the following year was defeated by the Persians at Kallinikos in Syria. The king of Persia, Khosrow I, who replaced Kavad I in September 531, concluded a “perpetual peace” at the beginning of 532, under the terms of which Justinian had to pay Persia 4000 pounds of gold for the maintenance of Caucasian fortresses that resisted the raids of the barbarians, and renounce the protectorate over Iberia in the Caucasus. The second war with Persia broke out in 540, when Justinian, preoccupied with affairs in the West, allowed his forces in the East to become dangerously weakened. The fighting took place in the area from Colchis on the Black Sea coast to Mesopotamia and Assyria. In 540, the Persians sacked Antioch and a number of other cities, but Edessa managed to pay them off. In 545, Justinian had to pay 2,000 pounds of gold for the truce, which, however, did not affect Colchis (Lazica), where hostilities continued until 562. The final settlement was similar to the previous ones: Justinian had to pay 30,000 aurei (gold coins) annually, and Persia pledged to defend the Caucasus and not persecute Christians.
Much more significant campaigns were undertaken by Justinian in the West. The Mediterranean Sea once belonged to Rome, but now it belongs to Italy, southern Gaul, as well as most of Africa and Spain, were ruled by barbarians. Justinian nurtured ambitious plans for the return of these lands. The first blow was directed against the Vandals in Africa, where the indecisive Gelimer ruled, whose rival Childeric Justinian supported. In September 533, Belisarius landed on the African coast without hindrance and soon entered Carthage. About 30 km west of the capital he won a decisive battle and in March 534, after a long siege on Mount Pappua in Numidia, he forced Gelimer to surrender. However, the campaign still could not be considered over, since the Berbers, Moors and rebellious Byzantine troops had to be dealt with. The eunuch Solomon was entrusted with pacifying the province and establishing control over the Ores mountain range and eastern Mauritania, which he did in 539-544. Due to new uprisings in 546, Byzantium almost lost Africa, but by 548 John Troglita established strong and lasting power in the province.
The conquest of Africa was only a prelude to the conquest of Italy, which was now dominated by the Ostrogoths. King Theodat killed them Amalasunthu, daughter the great Theodoric, which was patronized by Justinian, and this incident served as a pretext for starting the war. By the end of 535 Dalmatia was occupied, Belisarius occupied Sicily. In 536 he captured Naples and Rome. Theodat removed Witigis, who from March 537 to March 538 besieged Belisarius in Rome, but was forced to retreat north with nothing. Byzantine troops then occupied Picenum and Milan. Ravenna fell after a siege that lasted from late 539 to June 540, and Italy was declared a province. However, in 541 the brave young king of the Goths, Totila, took the matter of reconquering his former possessions into his own hands, and by 548 Justinian owned only four bridgeheads on the coast of Italy, and by 551 Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia also passed to the Goths. In 552, a talented Byzantine commander arrived in Italy eunuch Narses with a well-equipped and supplied army. Moving rapidly from Ravenna to the south, he defeated the Goths at Tagine in the center of the Apennines and in the last decisive battle at the foot of Mount Vesuvius in 553. In 554 and 555, Narses cleared Italy of the Franks and Alemanni and suppressed the last centers of Gothic resistance. The territory north of the Po was partially returned in 562.
The Ostrogothic kingdom ceased to exist. Ravenna became the center of Byzantine administration in Italy. Narses ruled there as patrician from 556 to 567, and after him the local governor began to be called exarch. Justinian more than satisfied his ambitions. The western coast of Spain and the southern coast of Gaul also submitted to him. However, the main interests of the Byzantine Empire were still in the East, in Thrace and Asia Minor, so the cost of acquisitions in the West, which could not be durable, may have been too high.
The Nika Rebellion broke out under the following circumstances. The parties that formed around horse racing at the hippodrome were usually limited to enmity with each other. However, this time they united and put forward a joint demand for the release of their imprisoned comrades, which was followed by a demand for the dismissal of three unpopular officials. Justinian showed compliance, but here the urban mob, dissatisfied with the exorbitant taxes, joined the struggle. Some senators took advantage of the unrest and nominated him as a contender for the imperial throne. Hypatia, nephew Anastasia I. However, the authorities managed to split the movement by bribing the leaders of one of the parties. On the sixth day, troops loyal to the government attacked the people gathered at the hippodrome and committed a wild massacre. Justinian did not spare the pretender to the throne, but later showed restraint, so that he emerged from this difficult ordeal even stronger. It should be noted that the increase in taxes was caused by the costs of two large-scale campaigns - in the East and West. Minister John of Cappadocia showed miracles of ingenuity, obtaining funds from any sources and by any means. Another example of Justinian's extravagance was his building program. Only in Constantinople alone can one name the following grandiose buildings: the Cathedral of St., rebuilt after destruction during the Nika uprising. Sophia (532-537), which is still one of the greatest buildings in the world; the so-called not preserved and still insufficiently studied. Great (or Sacred) Palace; Augustion Square and the magnificent buildings adjacent to it; The church of St. built by Theodora Apostles (536-550).
Codification of law. More fruitful were the colossal efforts made by Justinian to develop Roman law. The Roman Empire gradually abandoned its former rigidity and inflexibility, so that the so-called norms began to be taken into account on a large (perhaps even excessive) scale. “the rights of peoples” and even “natural law”. Justinian decided to summarize and systematize this extensive material. The work was carried out by the outstanding lawyer Tribonian with numerous assistants. As a result, the famous Corpus iuris civilis was born ( "Code of Civil Law"), consisting of three parts: 1) Codex Iustinianus (“Justinian’s Code”). It was first published in 529, but it was soon significantly revised and in 534 it received the force of law - precisely in the form in which we now know it. This included all the imperial decrees (constitutiones) that seemed important and remained relevant, starting with the emperor Adriana, who ruled at the beginning of the 2nd century, including 50 decrees of Justinian himself. 2) Pandectae or Digesta (“Digests”), a compilation of the views of the best jurists (mainly 2nd and 3rd centuries), prepared in 530-533, provided with amendments. The Justinian Commission undertook the task of reconciling the different approaches of the jurists. The legal rules described in these authoritative texts became binding on all courts. 3) Institutiones (“Institutions”, i.e. “Fundamentals”), a law textbook for students. Textbook of Guy, a lawyer who lived in the 2nd century. AD, was modernized and corrected, and from December 533 this text was included in the curriculum. After the death of Justinian, Novellae (“Novels”), an addition to the “Code”, were published, which contained 174 new imperial decrees, and after his death Triboniana (546) Justinian published only 18 documents. Most documents are written in Greek, which has acquired the status of an official language.
Religious politics. Justinian was interested in religious issues and considered himself a theologian. Being passionately committed to Orthodoxy, he fought against pagans and heretics. In Africa and Italy, the Arians suffered from it. Monophysites who denied the humanity of Christ were tolerated because Theodora shared their views. In connection with the Monophysites, Justinian faced a difficult choice: he wanted peace in the East, but did not want to quarrel with Rome, which meant absolutely nothing to the Monophysites. At first, Justinian tried to achieve reconciliation, but when the Monophysites were anathematized at the Council of Constantinople in 536, persecution resumed. Then Justinian began to prepare the ground for a compromise: he tried to persuade Rome to develop a softer interpretation of Orthodoxy, and forced Pope Vigilius, who was with him in 545-553, to actually condemn the position of the creed adopted in 4th Ecumenical Council in Chalcedon. This position has been approved by 5th Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople in 553. By the end of his reign, the position occupied by Justinian could hardly be distinguished from the position of the Monophysites.
Reputation and achievements. In assessing Justinian's personality and achievements, we must take into account the role played by his contemporary and chief historian Procopius in shaping our understanding of him. A well-informed and competent scientist, for reasons unknown to us, Procopius felt a persistent hostility towards the emperor, which he did not deny himself the pleasure of pouring out in the Secret History (Anecdota), especially regarding Theodora. Historians evaluate the merits of Justinian as a great codifier of law; for this one act alone, Dante gave him a place in Paradise. In the religious struggle, Justinian played a dual role: first he tried to reconcile rivals and reach a compromise, then he unleashed persecution and ended up almost completely abandoning what he initially professed. He should not be underestimated as a statesman and strategist. In relation to Persia, he pursued a traditional policy, achieving certain successes. Justinian conceived a grandiose program for the return of the western possessions of the Roman Empire and almost completely implemented it. However, in doing so he upset the balance of power in the empire, and it is possible that Byzantium subsequently was sorely lacking in resources and energy that had been wasted in the West. Justinian died in Constantinople on November 14, 565.
Biography
With all these silly
