Drupe is a dry or juicy fruit. Fruits of plants. Classification of fruits according to the number of pistils involved in their formation

A fruit is one of the organs of a flowering plant. The structure of the fruits is varied, therefore different types of fruits are distinguished. The functions of all fruits are the same: preserving seeds and promoting their distribution.

Education

Any fruit is formed from a flower, so only flowering plants have fruits.

Sometimes they say that the fruit is an overgrown ovary. Initially, the ovary inside contains ovules with eggs. After pollination of the flower and subsequent double fertilization, the ovules become seeds. The walls of the ovary gradually thicken, transform, and turn into the pericarp.

Structure

The fruit consists of:

• seeds;
• pericarp.

Rice. 1. The structure of the fetus.

During the development of the pericarp, various organic matter. Some of them give the fruit color, others attract animals with their smell.

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The number of seeds and the nature of the pericarp are the main characteristics by which different types of fruits are distinguished.

Classification

The pericarp can grow greatly and accumulate a significant amount of water. In this case, the fruit is called juicy.

Rice. 2. Juicy fruits.

If there is little water in the pericarp, the fruit is classified as dry.

Both juicy and dry pericarps equally successfully perform the function of protecting seeds.

Rice. 3. Dry fruits.

Fruits are also classified according to the number of seeds. There are fruits with one seed (peach) and multi-seeded ones (gooseberries).

Table "Classification of fruits"

The table shows only the main types of fruits. There are a number of peculiar fruits characteristic of a small number of species. For example, the pomegranate fruit is pomegranate. Its pericarp is dry, but it is incorrect to classify it as a dry fruit, since the peel of the pomegranate seeds is very juicy.

There are complex fruits consisting of simple ones. For example, the fruits of raspberries and blackberries are composed of small drupes.

Some types of fruits are similar. The difference between a nut and an acorn is the lignified pericarp. A bean differs from a pod in the absence of internal partitions.

The fruits also differ in:

• opening methods;
• characteristics of distribution in nature.

For example, the capsule, pod and bean are dehiscent fruits, while the achene, caryopsis and nut are non-dehiscent.

The main methods of fruit distribution:

• by the wind;
• water;
• animals.

Some fruits scatter seeds on their own. When ripening, high pressure is created inside the fruit, and the seeds are thrown out.

Inferiority

Small flowers of many plants are collected in inflorescences. When fruits form, the inflorescences turn into infructescences. So, a sunflower has flowers collected in a basket. Each flower produces an achene when ripe. All achenes are collected into infructescence.

The variety and significance of the fruits is very great. For many species of animals they are the basis of nutrition.

A person also cannot live without fruits, since to this day they are an irreplaceable source of various organic substances for us:

• carbohydrates;
• vegetable oils;
• vitamins;
• proteins.

Therefore, people today, as in ancient times, collect the fruits of wild plants, and also cultivate cultivated plants that produce:

• fruits;
• vegetable oils;
• vegetables;
• medicinal substances;
• coffee and cocoa;
• cereals

The American Indians considered the chocolate tree sacred and believed that cocoa enlightened the mind. Latin name tree - Theobroma, which means “divine food”.

The cotton fiber used to make cotton fabric is also part of the fruit. These are hairs on the seeds.

What have we learned?

Preparing a report or homework in 6th grade biology, you need to remember that the fruit contains seeds - rudimentary daughter organisms. Its natural function is to preserve seeds until they ripen and promote their dispersal. Based on the nature of the pericarp and the number of seeds, different types of fruits are distinguished. The importance of fruits for the nutrition of humans and many animals is very great.

Test on the topic

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Fruit (lat. fructus) is a flower modified as a result of double fertilization. It is formed from one flower, intended for the reproduction of angiosperms, and also serves for the formation, preservation and distribution of the seeds contained in it. Many fruits are valuable food products, raw materials for the production of dyes, medicines, etc. The science that studies fruits is called carpology, and its branch that studies the distribution of fruits and seeds is called carpoecology. In pharmacology, fruits are any types of fruits, their fragments, as well as infructescences.

Structure

The fruit is formed mainly from the ovary, but various parts of the flower (calyx, perianth and stamens) can take part in its formation. Seeds are formed from ovules. The wall (the so-called pericarp) is formed from the wall of the ovary. The pericarp consists of three layers: the outer - exocarp or epicarp, the middle - mesocarp and the inner - endocarp, all of them are clearly distinguishable. For example, consider the cherry fruit. It has an outer layer (exocarp) - thin, leathery, a middle layer (mesocarp) - edible juicy pulp, and an inner layer (endocarp) - a seed surrounded by a hard bone made of petrified tissue. There are fruits in which the layers of the pericarp are difficult to distinguish, even during anatomical examination, this is explained by compression and deformation of the cells during fruit ripening.

Development

The fruit develops after fertilization, but in some angiosperms the development of the seed embryo occurs in the absence of fertilization, i.e. by apomixis. The morphological basis of the fruit is the gynoecium, primarily the ovary. Other parts of the flower (calyx, perianth, stamens) most often dry out, and sometimes the ovary also participates in the formation of the fruit, transforming into juicy or woody, sometimes membranous fragments.

The ovary undergoes the greatest changes, in which increased cell division occurs, which leads to an increase in its size and proliferation of the walls. After pollination, the plant changes the direction of movement of nutritional compounds towards the developing fruits. For example, in herbaceous plants, almost all synthesized organic substances go to the development of seeds and fruits, while other plant tissues are depleted. After growth stops, the fruit begins to ripen, while chlorophyll and tannins decompose, and pigments accumulate in the vacuoles, which determine the color characteristic of this species. The walls contain various substances: sugar, some vitamins, proteins, starch, fatty oils, etc.

A mature fetus is characterized by a set of characteristics unique to it. The fruit contains a seed or seeds that are attached to the pericarp or are freely located in the cavity of the fruit, or are tightly covered with a fleshy wall. Seeds ensure the distribution of the plant species in nature, although by weight the seeds belong to a smaller proportion of the fruit. After ripening, nutrients stop flowing into it, it no longer grows, and over time, the tissues undergo destruction and rotting, releasing the seeds. Seedless fruits are also found.

Depending on the species, the fruits have different shapes: spherical, pear-shaped, cylindrical, spiral, lens-shaped, wing-shaped, etc. The surface of the fruit can be rough, smooth, prickly, warty, etc. Dimensions vary from 1mm to 1m.

Classification

According to the classification, fruits are divided into real or true, formed from an overgrown ovary, and false, in the formation of which other parts of the flower also take part.

Among true fruits, there are simple ones, formed exclusively from the pistil, and composite, complex ones, formed from a multi-membered apocarpous gynoecium (rose hips, strawberries, strawberries, raspberries, etc.). Simple fruits are divided according to the consistency of the pericarp into juicy (with a juicy pericarp) and dry (with a dry pericarp).

Dry ones include:

- boll-shaped or polyspermous (poppy, datura, tulip, bean), nut-shaped or single-seeded (walnut, hazel, hazelnut), grains (cereals), lionfish (maple), acorns (oak), achenes (sunflower).

Composite (complex) fruits (apocarpy) are named after the type of fruit formed from a separate pistil of the apocarpous gynoecium. Evolutionarily, apocarps are the most archaic fruits (Fig. 31).

Collection leaflet (multifoliate) is a collection of several leaflets, each of which arises from a separate pistil of an apocarpous gynoecium (Magnoliaceae, Ranunculaceae).

A rather rare type of fetus is juicy multileaf(Chinese lemongrass). By the time the fruits ripen, the receptacle of female flowers reaches a length of 8 cm, and sessile spherical two-seeded succulent leaflets develop from the pistils on it, so the assembled succulent leaflet becomes like a drooping raceme.

Assembled nut (multi-nut) - a collection of many nuts that arise from the apocarpous gynoecium (buttercup, adonis, cinquefoil). Varieties of prefabricated nuts are rose hips and strawberries.

U rosehip the fruit is called cynarodium – its fruit nuts sit inside a strongly concave jug-shaped juicy hypanthium.

Polynut strawberries have small nuts, they sit on the convex surface of a very overgrown fleshy receptacle. This modification of the polynut is called “strawberry” or “fraga”.

The fruit of the nut bearing lotus is called submerged polynut. Each of its individual nuts sits in a recess in a disc-shaped, spongy, overgrown receptacle.

Prefabricated drupe (multidrupe) - a collection of many drupes arising from the apocarpous gynoecium (raspberries, blackberries, cloudberries, drupes).

Rice. 31. Composite (complex) fruits:

1 – dry multileaf (marigold); 2 – dry multi-leaf (catchment); 3 – juicy multileaf (schisandra chinensis); 4 – dry multi-nut (buttercup); 5 – juicy multi-nut (strawberry); 6 – cynarodium (rose hips); 7 – dry multidrupe (bearberry); 8 – juicy polydrupe (raspberry)

Inferiority- These are fused fruits that arise from individual flowers of one inflorescence. For example, in pineapple, the inflorescence axis fuses with numerous ovaries and the bases of bracts into a fleshy, succulent tissue. Similar inflorescences are formed in the breadfruit tree.

In a broad sense infructescence is a collection of mature fruits of one inflorescence, regardless of fusion. For example, the so-called mulberry of a mulberry is formed by close, tightly seated, but not fused achenes, which are enclosed in juicy edible colored perianths. In figs (wine berries), the achenes in the infructescence also do not grow together, being in a hollow container, the fleshy wall of which is formed by the axes of the inflorescence.

U beets infertility is called ball and consists of several fruits fused with the perianth leaves and with each other.

Test tasks on the topic “Fruit. Classification of fruits"

1. Which organ is characteristic only of angiosperms?

– root;

– stem;

2. What process most often underlies fetal formation?

– pollination;

– flowering;

– fertilization;

– double fertilization.

3. Which part of the flower plays main role in fetal formation?

– corolla;

– calyx;

– androecium;

- gynoecium.

4. What morphological parts does the fruit consist of?

– pericarp, seed;

– seed coat, embryo, storage tissues;

– pericarp, embryo;

– perianth, seed.

5. What is the name of the group of fruits that includes multi-seeded dehiscent fruits with a dry pericarp?

– box-shaped;

– nut-shaped;

– berry-shaped;

– drupe-like.

6. Which plants are characterized by leaflet fruit?

– buttercup, basilisk;

– sokirks, cotton wool;

– peas, lupine;

– rapeseed, cabbage.

7. What is the name of a single-locular fruit, formed by one carpel, which opens simultaneously along the ventral and dorsal sutures from apex to base?

– pod;

– leaflet;

- pod.

8. What is the difference between a pod and a pod?

– ratio of length and width;

– by weight;

– according to the method of opening;

- by color.

9. Which plants have a fruit pod?

– rapeseed, rapeseed;

– yarutka, shepherd’s purse;

– beans, lupine;

- Sokirks, cotton wool.

10. Which plants have a pod fruit?

– rapeseed, rapeseed;

– yarutka, shepherd’s purse;

– beans, lupine;

- Sokirks, cotton wool.

11. Which fruits belong to the “box-shaped” group?

– leaflet, bob;

– nut, grain;

– pumpkin, berry;

- achene, acorn.

12. Which plants have a capsule fruit?

– rapeseed, rapeseed, yarutka;

– flax, onion, dope;

– beans, lupine, clover;

– Sokirk, cottonweed, buttercup.

13. What is the name of the group of fruits that includes single-seeded, indehiscent fruits with a dry pericarp?

– box-shaped;

– nut-shaped;

– berry-shaped;

– drupe-like.

14. What are nut-shaped fruits according to the morphogenetic classification of fruits?

– apocarpy;

– monocarps;

– coenocarps;

– pseudomonocarpy.

15. What plants have a caryopsis fruit?

– sunflower, sow thistle;

– oak, beech;

– sorrel, rhubarb;

– oats, corn.

16. What plants have lionfish fruit?

– sunflower, sow thistle;

– oak, beech;

– sorrel, rhubarb;

– oats, corn.

17. What plants have a nut fruit?

– cornflower, sow thistle;

– buckwheat, linden;

– onions, henbane;

– oats, corn.

18. What is the name of the fruit in which the pericarp is thin, filmy, fused with the seed coat (nut-shaped group of fruits)?

– grain;

– achene;

- acorn.

19. What plants have an achene fruit?

– cornflower, sow thistle;

– buckwheat, linden;

– onions, henbane;

– oats, corn.

20. What is the name of the group of fruits that includes multi-seeded, indehiscent fruits with a fleshy or juicy pericarp?

– box-shaped;

– nut-shaped;

– berry-shaped;

– drupe-like.

21. What plants have berry fruit?

– buckwheat, linden, millet;

– potatoes, tomato, persimmon;

– cucumber, pumpkin, squash.

22. What plants have pumpkin fruit?

– cornflower, sow thistle, sunflower;

– buckwheat, linden, millet;

– potatoes, tomato, persimmon;

– cucumber, pumpkin, squash.

23. What is the name of a fruit formed from a syncarpous gynoecium, in which zones of the pericarp are clearly distinguishable (exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp); juice sacs are formed in the endocarp?

– pumpkin;

– orange;

- apple.

24. What plants have apple fruit?

– grapes, currants;

– buckwheat, linden;

– pear, rowan;

- orange, lemon.

25. What is the name of the group of fruits that includes single-seeded fruits with a woody pericarp endocarp?

– box-shaped;

– nut-shaped;

– berry-shaped;

– drupe-like.

26. Which plants have a juicy drupe fruit?

– grapes, currants;

– plum, peach;

– sea buckthorn, almonds;

- orange, lemon.

27. Which plants have dry drupe fruit?

– pomegranate, quince;

– plum, peach;

– sea buckthorn, almonds;

- orange, lemon.

28. What are the names of fruits that are dry, indehiscent, but fall apart longitudinally and transversely?

– simple box-shaped;

– complex;

– fractional and segmented;

- simple drupes.

29. What group of fruits does the Diptera fruit belong to?

– box-shaped;

– complex;

– fractional and segmented;

– nut-shaped.

30. What plants have the fruit lichen?

– pomegranate, quince;

– sage, mint;

– sea buckthorn, almonds;

– caraway seeds, dill.

31. What plants have coenobium fruit?

– raspberries, blackberries;

– sage, mint;

– sea buckthorn, almonds;

– caraway seeds, dill.

32. Which plants have the fruit, a composite drupe (polydrupe)?

– raspberries, blackberries;

– sage, mint;

– sea buckthorn, almonds;

– caraway seeds, dill.

33. Which plants have a compound nut (multi-nut) fruit?

– raspberries, blackberries;

– buttercup, cinquefoil;

– sea buckthorn, almonds;

– lemon, peach.

34. What is the name of the fruit of a rose hip?

– coenobium;

– visloporpnik;

– cynarodium;

- Pomeranian.

35. Which plants produce infructescence?

– pineapple, beets;

– buttercup, cinquefoil;

– sea buckthorn, almonds;

- carrots, parsnips.

LITERATURE

A n d r e v a, I. I. Botany / I. I. Andreeva, L. S. Rodman. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Kolos, 1999. – 488 p.

B a v t u t o, T. A. Botany: morphology and anatomy of plants / T. A. Bavtuto, V. M. Eremin. – Minsk: Higher. school, 1997. – 196 p.

Botany: morphology and anatomy of plants: textbook. aid for students ped. Institute of Biol. and chem. specialist. / A. E. Vasiliev [etc.]. – 2nd ed., revised. – M.: Education, 1988. – 480 p.

Elenevsky, A.G. Botany of higher, or terrestrial, plants / A.G. Elenevsky, M.P. Solovyova, V.N. Tikhomirov. – M.: Academy, 2000. – 432 p.

Zh u k o v s k i y, P. M. Botany / P. M. Zhukovsky. – 5th ed., revised. and additional – M.: Kolos, 1982. – 623 p.

S u v o r o v, V. V. Botany with the basics of geobotany / V. V. Suvorov, I. N. Voronova. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – L.: Kolos, 1979. – 560 p.

Khrzhanovsky, V.G. Course of general botany: in 2 hours / V.G. Khrzhanovsky. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Higher. school, 1982. – Part 1. – 384 p.

Khrzhanovsky, V.G. Course of general botany: in 2 hours / V.G. Khrzhanovsky. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Higher. school, 1982. – Part 2. – 544 p.

Khrzhanovsky, V. G. Workshop on the course of general botany / V. G. Khrzhanovsky, S. F. Ponomarenko. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Agropromizdat, 1989. – 416 p.

Plant life: in 6 volumes / chapter. ed. A. A. Fedorov. – M.: Education, 1980. – T. 5(1). – 430 s.

Yakovlev, G.P. Botany for the teacher: in 2 hours / G.P. Yakovlev, L.V. Averyanov. – M.: Education, 1996. – Part 1. – 224 p.

Yakovlev, G.P. Botany for the teacher: in 2 hours / G.P. Yakovlev, L.V. Averyanov. – M.: Education, 1997. – Part 2. – 336 p.

Introduction………………………………………………………….…………………………………….3

1. Flower and its morphological structure…………………………………………………………………….4

2. Androecium………………………………………………………………………………...15

2.1. Microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis………………………………………………………19

3. Gynoecium…………………………………………………………………………………….24

3.1. Types of gynoecium…………………………………………………………………………………..27

3.2. Ovule. Megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis………………………………...29

4. Formulas and diagrams of flowers………………………………………………………..35

5. Inflorescence. Classification of inflorescences……………………………………………………..39

5.1. Simple monopodial inflorescences……………………………………………...40

5.2. Complex monopodial inflorescences……………………………………………………………...41

5.3. Aggregate (composite) inflorescences……………………………………………………42

5.4. Sympodial inflorescences………………………………………………………..43

6. Seed. Structure and classification of seeds……………………………………………...47

7. Fruit. Classification of fruits……………………………………………………………………………….54

7.1. Box-shaped fruits………………………………………………………...57

7.2. Nut-like fruits…………………………………………………………………………………...58

7.3. Berry-shaped fruits………………………………………………………………...60

7.4. Drupe-like fruits……………………………………………………………………………….62

7.5. Fractional and segmented fruits………………………………………………………63

7.6. Composite (complex) fruits and infructescences………………………………………………………64

Literature………………………………………………………………………………………..72

Educational publication

Porkhuntsova Olga Anatolyevna

Duktova Natalya Alexandrovna

Tsyrkunova Olga Alexandrovna

BOTANY. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

ANGIOSPERMS

Educational and methodological manual

Editor N. N. Pyanusova

Technical editor N. L. Yakubovskaya

Corrector S. N. Kirilenko

Signed for publication on February 28, 2013. Format 60×80 1/16. Offset paper.

Risography. Times typeface. Conditional oven l. 4.18. Academic ed. l. 4.21.

Circulation 75 copies. Order.

EE "Belarusian State Agricultural Academy".

LI No. 02330/0548504 dated June 16, 2009.

St. Studencheskaya, 2, 213407, Gorki.

Printed by the Belarusian State Agricultural Academy.

St. Michurina, 5, 213407, Gorki.

Fruit called a formation that includes the ovule, as well as other elements of the pistil - the style and the ovary.

The concept “seed” means a formation that arises only from the ovule itself. The fruits of many cereals - caryopsis and sunflower seeds are true fruits. In addition to true fruits, there are also “false fruits.” The receptacle, floral films and other parts of the flower take part in their formation. An example of false fruits is the grains of some cereals, covered with flower films (oats, barley, millet, etc.). Dry fruits include, for example, cereal grains and sunflower seeds.

Dry fruits can be dehiscent or non-dehiscent.

Expanding fruits include:

1. bean - a multi-seeded fruit that cracks at the seams when ripening, usually this type of fruit is characteristic of legumes;
2. A pod is a multi-seeded fruit that opens like a bean at both seams. Inside the pod there is a partition to which seeds are attached on both sides (characteristic of the Cruciferous family);
3. capsule - a multi-seeded fruit with a drop-down lid with flaps or a capsule with holes through which seeds fall out.

Indehiscent fruits include:

1. caryopsis - a single-seeded fruit with tightly fused fruit and seed coats (wheat, rye, etc.);
2. achene - a single-seeded fruit with a fruit shell separated from the seed (sunflower, safflower);
3. nut (nut) - a single-seeded fruit with a very hard, lignified fruit shell that is not fused with the seed (castor bean).

There are several classifications of dry fruits and seeds, the most important are according to chemical composition and according to botanical characteristics, as well as marketability.

According to the chemical composition, fruits and seeds can be divided into four groups:

1. fruits rich in carbohydrates (starch), these include the fruits of cereals and buckwheat;
2. protein-rich legume seeds;
3. fruits and seeds of oilseeds, rich in fat;
4. seeds and fruits of essential oil plants, rich in both fat and essential oils.

Botanical, biological and morphological characteristics of dry fruits and seeds various types and genera of cultivated plants are used in commodity classification. It combines the names of fruits and seeds, depending on their technological and nutritional properties, into appropriate quality groups.

The botanical classification of cereals was formed in its basic outlines already in the 18th century, when Linnaeus identified the most important types and genera of cereals and gave them an accurate description. Such a classification, based on the morphological or biological characteristics of plants, could not, however, affect the entire variety of properties of grain of each species and each variety. Only in those cases where botanical differences were sharply manifested in grain, the classification of crops from the commodity side coincided to a certain extent with the botanical one. For example, the technological properties of durum wheat and spelt were so different from ordinary soft wheat that it was necessary to separate them according to market value. But at the same time, the type of bread wheat, quite diverse in grain quality, appeared as wheat in general, without any differentiation based on quality characteristics. Meanwhile, significant development of flour milling technology, in particular the spread of high-grade (high-grade) grinding by the end of the 18th century. forced us to pay more attention to the properties of raw materials, and the progress of agronomic sciences contributed to the study of cereals in a wide variety of directions. In this regard, by the beginning of the 19th century. In the practice of grain production, a clear understanding of some quality indicators characterizing commercial grain has already taken shape. For example, it was well known that wheat with a glassy endosperm behaves differently during grinding than floury wheat. Much attention was paid to the degree of grain completion, since flour millers knew that stunting leads to a decrease in the yield of high-quality flour, and to contamination, especially with impurities that are difficult to separate. However, all this information was not enough to establish standards for the classification of grain entering the market. In practice, each given batch was evaluated based on a sample taken from it, almost exclusively by organoleptic methods without quantitative criteria. From the first half of the 19th century. In Russia, there was a significant increase in the acreage under the main grain crops, since in connection with the development of communication routes, grain trade, both internal and external, increased. At the same time, the number of varieties of the main cereals, especially wheat, increased. The need to establish some kind of classification of grain, as well as quality indicators characterizing it, became increasingly obvious. At the same time, the concept of “volumetric weight” of grain (in nature, as a criterion of “quality factor”) appeared, associated with its flour-grinding properties. In the complete absence of other objective indicators, “volumetric” weight quickly gained recognition and became very widespread in the grain trade. Already in 1831, when the South Russian Society agriculture established premiums for the best quality of wheat; the decisive indicator was recognized as “volumetric” weight (in kind), expressed by the mass of one quarter of the grain in poods and pounds. But this indicator unilaterally characterized the quality of grain.

The differences between varieties and varieties were not limited only to nature. Therefore, already at this stage in the grain trade they began to use a primitive classification that took into account the most acute differences between individual groups of cereals. Thus, it is known that in 1900, the wheat of Southern Russia (Odessa) entering the market was classified taking into account varieties and forms (for example, Arnautka, Girka, winter, spring), and each of the groups was assessed by the size of the grain. However, in fact, these groups are so diverse in their properties that the name alone did not give any real idea of ​​​​the quality of a given batch; as before, the only way to obtain information about it was to select a sample. The second half of the 19th century in Russia is characterized by a further increase in sown areas and the rapid development of grain trade, especially foreign trade. Huge quantities of grain were compiled for export and for domestic consumption, which were transported from producing areas to ports or other areas. The quality of a particular crop varied, as a result of which the selection of homogeneous batches became increasingly difficult. In addition, there was no well-thought-out classification and system of indicators by which grain could be grouped. On the other hand, flour millers also placed increased demands on methods for assessing the technological properties of grain, trying to obtain grain of a certain quality from grain traders. Only in 1891 was the first attempt made to bring into some kind of system the numerous varieties of wheat that were available on the Russian market.

At the suggestion of the Ministry of Finance (which controlled the grain trade), a list of varieties of Russian wheat was compiled, divided into two groups - spring and winter; within these groups a number of subgroups were established based on grain quality (color and glassiness). But due to the lack of materials characterizing certain varieties according to these two indicators, the proposed system was too general. In addition, it did not take into account grain quality indicators at all (humidity, contamination, the presence of puny grains), and even such a well-known indicator as nature was not included. Therefore, it could not provide any advantages over the existing wheat nomenclature and did not become widespread.

Attempts to establish a commodity classification of grain (mainly wheat) were also made somewhat later by individual grain exchanges (for example, Odessa in 1900) in the most important centers of grain trade, but they did not have much success, and as before, the assessment of grain quality was not systematized and structured . In different regions, the same variety appeared under different names, and vice versa, different varieties were given the same name.

Of the indicators of grain quality, only nature was determined, but since neither the instruments nor the techniques for working with them were unified, the resulting data were not accurate. As a result, the owners of flour mills, who were guided only by this indicator when purchasing grain, were often deceived by the quality of the raw material.

The need to streamline the entire system of trade classification and evaluation of grain became increasingly acute. However, decisive steps in this direction were made only with the advent of a developed network of large elevators and granaries, i.e., in the years preceding the First World War (1910-1913). To store grain in silos and large-capacity warehouses, it was necessary to combine many relatively small lots, and this required pre-installation general principles trade classification systems.

After doing a lot of work to study the varieties of various crops in the main producing regions of Russia, the Granary Department of the State Bank (which was in charge of the elevators) established a classification for all grains accepted for storage in the Volga region, Voronezh, Tambov regions. For the first time here, a grouping of grain according to the main varieties was given in a systematic form: according to moisture content and contamination indicators. And also, as a very important recognition feature for most cultures, color was introduced, although it was defined very conditionally as “light” and “dark.” Depending on the totality of these indicators, each culture was divided into types; nature was not included in the characteristics characterizing the type, but was determined for each batch and supplemented the assessment of the quality of a given grain. The classification of the State Bank was a significant step towards creating a harmonious system of commodity evaluation of grain. In it, along with taking into account varietal characteristics, great attention was paid to such important indicators of grain quality as contamination and moisture, and categories were established according to the size of the latter - dry and medium dryness In addition, strict limits on contamination and humidity were introduced, above which grain could not be accepted for storage. However, there were significant shortcomings in this classification. Apart from the fact that some of the varieties identified here were not themselves homogeneous, the evaluation scheme was too cumbersome. Grain was assigned to one type or another based on four indicators - variety, color, contamination and moisture content. Grain of the same variety was classified into different types, depending on the values ​​of the last three indicators. So, for example, Beloturka (durum) wheat could be classified as eight various types, in terms of humidity, color and contamination, the weight is also at eight. In turn, for one genus of wheat, 32 types were established for the Volga region and 36 types for the Voronezh and Tambov regions; for rye - 12, for millet - 18, for oats - 24 types. Such a huge number of types created a lot of inconvenience in work and was the result of an unsuccessful scheme for their construction.

However, this classification played a major role in establishing a rational assessment of grain quality. It should be noted that it applied only to grain received for storage in the elevators and warehouses of the State Bank, and did not apply to the entire grain turnover in Russia. Therefore, in the grain trade, which took place in addition to the network of elevators, chaos continued to dominate the system and methods for assessing the quality of grain.

In 1923, the State Unified Inspectorate was created, which carried out a huge amount of work on a detailed study of the varietal composition and quality indicators of grain of the most important crops in various regions of the USSR for several years. Based on the collected material, in 1925, a trade classification of grains of the USSR was compiled, mandatory for all organizations procuring and processing grain. With some changes, the classification of grains developed by the State Grain Inspectorate existed until 1930, when, on its basis, all-Union standards for the quality of grain of various crops (OST) were approved.

Subsequently, all-Union standards (OST) were called state standards (GOST). GOST serves as a powerful lever with which you can regulate the quality of grain.

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Repetition of learned material

Petal

Sepal

Receptacle

Peduncle

Goals of educational activities

To acquire knowledge of the definition of the concept “fruit”.

1

2

Develop discrimination skills different types fruits

The fruit is a “ripe flower”. A.Eames

Fetus

• Fetus is the organ of seed reproduction of flowering plants, developing from the ovary of the pistil.
• Fetus is the organ of seed reproduction of flowering plants, developing from the ovary of the pistil.
• Fetus is the organ of seed reproduction of flowering plants, developing from the ovary of the pistil.
• Fetus is the organ of seed reproduction of flowering plants, developing from the ovary of the pistil.

Functions of fruits

The fruit is the most important reproductive organ of flowering plants.

Ensures seed ripening

Protects ripening seeds

Promotes seed dispersal

Structure of the fetus

FETUS

PERICARP

SEEDS

the outer part of the fruit formed from the walls of the ovary

Testa

Seed

Pericarp

Title in here

Pericarp value

• Protects seeds
• Helps spread seeds

Fruit classification

BY NUMBER OF SEEDS

SINGLE-SEED

POLYSPERMOUS

FRUIT FORMED FROM A FLOWER WITH ONE ovule in the ovary

FRUIT PRODUCED FROM A FLOWER WITH MANY ovules IN THE ovary

Fruit classification

BY THE STRUCTURE OF THE PERICARP

SIMPLE

COMPLEX

A SIMPLE FRUIT FORMED FROM A FLOWER WITH ONE PISTLE

Fruit classification

BY THE STRUCTURE OF THE PERICARP

DRY

JUICY

Leathery, woody pericarp

FLESH, WATER-SATURATED PERICARP

A SIMPLE FRUIT FORMED FROM A FLOWER WITH ONE PISTLE

Juicy fruits

FRUIT - APPLE

pear

rowan

apple

FRUIT-BERRY

tomato

currant

grape

Achene -

a dry, single-seeded, indehiscent fruit, the pericarp of which is adjacent but not fused with the seed.

Sunflower

Dandelion

Caryopsis -

dry, single-seeded, indehiscent fruit, the membranous pericarp of which is fused with the seed

Wheat Corn Rye

dry single-seeded, indehiscent fruit with lignified pericarp

hazel Linden Lotus

Acorn is a single-seeded, indehiscent fruit with a leathery pericarp, covered with a cap at the base.

Lionfish (two-winged fish)

• Fruit with a leathery pericarp with a wing-shaped outgrowth

ash

BOX

A fruit that dehisces with a lid, holes or

Falling apart.

Poppy, tulip, datura, henbane

• Single-locular fruit dehiscent at two sutures. The seeds are located on the walls of the fruit.

Peas, beans, soybeans, lentils, vetch

• Fruit that dehisces. The seeds are located on the inner partition.

Cabbage, radish, mustard, radish

Leaflet (multiple leaflet)

• Single seam opening
• Single-lobed fruit

The leaflet is characteristic of some ranunculaceae (larkspur, marigold, etc.), magnoliaceae, Crassulaaceae and proteaceae (banksia).

peony flyer

Delphiniums leaflets

Larkspur leaflet

Juicy fruits

FRUIT - PUMPKIN

cucumber

pumpkin

watermelon

FRUIT -DRUPE

viburnum

cherry

Raspberry

Polydrupe

plum

apricot

3. Succulent single-seeded

• A drupe is a fruit with a hard, woody intracarp, a juicy pericarp, and a filmy, colored extracarp.

Polydrupe

• Composite fruit. Formed from flowers that have large number pistils. It consists of small drupes fused together

Raspberry, blackberry, stone fruit, cloudberry

• Single-locular or multi-locular indehiscent fruit

Currants, grapes

Potatoes, tomato

Apple (apple)

• Fruits with a cartilaginous intracarp. In addition to the ovary, other parts of the flower are also involved in the base of the fruit.

Rowan, hawthorn

Fraga (strawberry)

• A multi-nut with a fleshy receptacle that expands when ripe.

Hesperidium (orange)

• Multilocular fruit, consisting of three layers: flavedo, albedo, pulp.

Interesting

• From a botanical point of view, “a berry is a juicy multi-seeded fruit.” That is, if the fetus has pulp and there are a lot of seeds inside - don’t worry, it’s a berry (currants, gooseberries, grapes).
• More berries
• To make it harder for children to learn, botanists have come up with additional names for some berries. (The following three characters, along with the "real berries" from the previous paragraph, are combined into the group of "berry-like fruits".) Pumpkin. Let's repeat the characteristics of the berry: 1) Is there pulp in pumpkin, watermelon and cucumber? - Eat. 2) Are there many seeds? - A lot. - So these are berries. Pomeranian. Here, it’s time for people with weak psyches to die from excess information. Well, what to do - natural selection. Orange is also a type of berry, characteristic of citrus fruits (lemon, orange, tangerine). Apple!!! Don't you dare call it a berry? Despite the presence of sweet pulp and many seeds? You shouldn't be doing that. (Apples, from a botanical point of view, grow not only on an apple tree, but also on a pear and rowan tree.)
• Not berries
• Now imagine a ripe, juicy cherry. With a slightly tart taste. Warm. You are lying on the grass, next to you lies... Stop! We get distracted. Are you still imagining cherries? Then you probably remember how many seeds there are. One!!! Therefore, cherry (plum, coffee) - from the point of view of cunning science-botany, not berries, but drupes. What about raspberries (drupes, blackberries)? They seem to consist of tiny cherries connected to each other, right? When many drupes are combined, multi-druplets are obtained. Finally, wild strawberries and strawberries. - What, them too?! – Yes, and they too are not berries, but many nuts. Do you remember the little black (or white, depending on your luck) dots on the surface of the strawberry? - Here.
• For those who argued that watermelon is a berry
• When one debater shouts that “a watermelon is a berry, not a pumpkin,” and the second one shouts that “a pumpkin, not a berry,” then such a dispute will not be resolved well. Because pumpkin is a type of berry. So don’t think too long, get ready for a quick transition to personalities, and then for a fight.
• An example of such a fight is Russian Wikipedia: at the beginning of the wiki article "Watermelon" it is written that “Pumpkin by structure similar to a berry,” and in the middle - that “Pumpkin is a type of berry.” Place your bets on who will win the age-old Russian dispute between pumpkin growers and berry lovers.

Fruits in art

still life

Valentin Serov "Girl with Peaches"

Internet resources used

www.themegallery.com

http://images.yandex.ru/yandsearch